The Longer Distances and Cross Country
As an athlete
moves on to the longer races, the aerobic component of training becomes more
important. However, speed is a factor even in the longest races. Today's
world-class marathoner is also a world-class 10,000-meter runner. For men, that
means well under 28:00 for the track race, while for women it means sub-32:00
speed. For an athlete to maintain that speed for an extended distance requires
good leg speed. The top male marathoners can run under 4:00 for a mile or under
3:42 for 1500 meters. Though that high-speed component in the short races is not
yet vital for women, it will be within a decade as a larger talent pool enters
the arena.
This discussion of speed points out a critical fact: the long distances and the steeplechase are not refuges for the athlete with no talent. The races do allow more progress based on extended hard work, so they are excellent frameworks for the traditional work ethic. However, at the world-class level, no events are "weak:' Through 2006, the world records at 10,000 meters require paces of just over 63 seconds per 400m lap for a man and under 71 seconds per lap for a woman, both maintained for 25 laps. The marathons require paces of 71 and 77 seconds per 400m lap for over 105 laps (though not run on the track) for a man and a woman, respectively.
More attention is now paid to developing the anaerobic threshold. The idea of very high mileage at a relatively easy pace is discredited as an effective training method for the distances.' As David Martin of the USOC's Elite Athlete Project says, ''This 7:00 a mile stuff for a 100 miles a week isn't necessarily going to hack if." Instead, higher intensity training at lower mileages is more
effective.
The most effective training appears to depend upon paces based on the athlete's aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, the levels at which the athlete accumulates certain levels of lactic acid:
• Aerobic threshold: 2 mmol per liter of lactate
• Anaerobic threshold: 4 mmol per liter of lactate
This discussion of speed points out a critical fact: the long distances and the steeplechase are not refuges for the athlete with no talent. The races do allow more progress based on extended hard work, so they are excellent frameworks for the traditional work ethic. However, at the world-class level, no events are "weak:' Through 2006, the world records at 10,000 meters require paces of just over 63 seconds per 400m lap for a man and under 71 seconds per lap for a woman, both maintained for 25 laps. The marathons require paces of 71 and 77 seconds per 400m lap for over 105 laps (though not run on the track) for a man and a woman, respectively.
More attention is now paid to developing the anaerobic threshold. The idea of very high mileage at a relatively easy pace is discredited as an effective training method for the distances.' As David Martin of the USOC's Elite Athlete Project says, ''This 7:00 a mile stuff for a 100 miles a week isn't necessarily going to hack if." Instead, higher intensity training at lower mileages is more
effective.
The most effective training appears to depend upon paces based on the athlete's aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, the levels at which the athlete accumulates certain levels of lactic acid:
• Aerobic threshold: 2 mmol per liter of lactate
• Anaerobic threshold: 4 mmol per liter of lactate
These thresholds are "breaking points" on the rising curve of lactic acid produced by the body as exercise becomes more strenuous. The aerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete is beginning to "work," having to use more oxygen to maintain the training effort. The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete can no longer take in enough oxygen to fuel the exercise, thus beginning to go into oxygen debt (recovery oxygen) and drawing on the body's reserves to maintain the effort. This discussion is based on Finnish research and practice, but some exercise physiologists question the validity of the thresholds..'
The most effective training speeds are in the transitional range between those two levels. Although an athlete's potential VO2max has genetic limits, the ability to race at a given level (percentage) of that figure is not so limited. In other words, the VO2max is not the only factor limiting an athlete's potential. As an example, Steve Prefontaine had a VO2max of above 80, compared to about 70 for Frank Shorter, yet both had roughly the same best marks at 5,000 meters (both world class). Shorter had more efficient running technique and was able to run at a higher percentage of his maximum than was Prefontaine.
Thus, two important aspects can be identified for long distance training: proper running technique and training at more effective levels of effort. The more intensive training sessions that theory recommends make the hard-easy principle even more important.
The benefit of---and reason for---the hard-easy principle is that the body needs time to recover from a workload. The recovery time that is needed depends on the intensity of the workload. A light run may require only a few hours of recovery. A 10-mile run at close to the anaerobic threshold may require from one to three days of recovery, depending on the athlete's training background.
With that understood, how to determine the most effective training levels? Although the VO2max and the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds are best determined by treadmill tests in a lab setting, rough measures can be made from the best racing times at longer distances.
Finnish researchers have suggested that when more
scientific testing is not
possible, the thresholds can be estimated from the beats per minute (BPM) of
the maximum heart rate (HRmax, which can also be estimated)." The training
zones are:
• V02max training:
Within 5 BPM of the HRmax
• Anaerobic training:
./ 20 to 30 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
./ 15 to 25 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
• Aerobic training:
./ 40 to 60 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
./ 35 to 50 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
Table 9-1 gives an example based on a maximum heart rate of 200 BPM. The maximum rate varies by age, sex, and fitness.
possible, the thresholds can be estimated from the beats per minute (BPM) of
the maximum heart rate (HRmax, which can also be estimated)." The training
zones are:
• V02max training:
Within 5 BPM of the HRmax
• Anaerobic training:
./ 20 to 30 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
./ 15 to 25 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
• Aerobic training:
./ 40 to 60 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
./ 35 to 50 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
Table 9-1 gives an example based on a maximum heart rate of 200 BPM. The maximum rate varies by age, sex, and fitness.
After the limits
are set for each type of training, the athlete can easily find the most
effective training speeds for steady runs. By running at varied paces on the
track and taking the pulse, the runner can find what speed gives a pulse of 150,
160, and so forth. Those speeds will be the training speeds. The theory suggests
the following types of training during the base conditioning period:
• VO2max
training: one session per week
,/ Usually three to five minutes total of fast intervals
,/ Long recoveries (10 to 20 minutes)
,/ Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed. Note: The heart rate should be maintained at this lower level after a race because it speeds the removal of lactic acid from the muscles .
• Anaerobic training: one session per week
,/ Usually 12 to 15 minutes of intervals
,/ Shorter recoveries (four to five minutes)
,/ Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed
,/ Usually three to five minutes total of fast intervals
,/ Long recoveries (10 to 20 minutes)
,/ Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed. Note: The heart rate should be maintained at this lower level after a race because it speeds the removal of lactic acid from the muscles .
• Anaerobic training: one session per week
,/ Usually 12 to 15 minutes of intervals
,/ Shorter recoveries (four to five minutes)
,/ Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed
• Aerobic training: five
sessions per week
,/ Steady-state running
,/ Three days at the upper limit (such as 160 BPM)
,/ Two days at the lower limit (such as 140 BPM)
,/ Steady-state running
,/ Three days at the upper limit (such as 160 BPM)
,/ Two days at the lower limit (such as 140 BPM)
Note that these training ideas are still experimental. Many gaps still exist in the knowledge base. Understanding training is like putting together a huge puzzle: the edges are formed, with isolated clusters of knowledge in the open middle. Coaching is still far from a hard science. However, all of the training principles in Chapter 3 hold firm in the face of newer scientific knowledge.
Research under the USOC's Elite Athlete Project in the early 1980s found that the best indicators of fitness changes from training by elite male runners were:
• Percentage of body fat
• Anaerobic threshold
• Blood hemoglobin
• Serum ferritin and haptoglobin
As a note on the tests for iron, such as the serum ferritin level, male distance runners were anemic nearly as often as women runners were. The iron level is critical to distance runners because of its role in oxygen transport. Though women runners must be especially careful that a proper iron level is maintained, male runners are also vulnerable to depletion. Tests such as the serum ferritin level show a drop in the iron level much sooner than the blood hemoglobin measure, which may give little useful indication until the problem is beyond quick remedy. Runners should be aware that a program of taking iron supplements should include regular blood tests, if possible, because different types of supplements are absorbed at different rates. In some cases, no more
than 10 percent of the iron supplement may be absorbed by the body.
Cross Country
Cross country
means many things to many people. For this discussion, the primary purpose of
the cross country season is to build a cardiovascular base for the spring track
season. We consider the big meets in May and June to be the most important of
the year.
The cross country season begins after the opening of school, though the first organized practice may be held as soon as early August, depending on the school system's schedule. We begin the program with a "run," not a race. The distance is equal to the racing distance at the end of the season, which (for university competition) is 5 to 6 kilometers for women and 8 to 10 kilometers
for men. The male athletes run their distance at a pace of 6 to 7 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 37 to 43 minutes for 10 km. The women run their distance at a pace of 7 to 8 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 23 to 26 minutes for 5 km. This pace is submaximal, but it should be a comfortable, successful run for the athlete.
Before the start of the run, each athlete declares a pace. The times are given at the one- and two-mile points to give the runners an idea of how close they are to their paces. If athletes reach a mark in a time much faster than their declared paces, they must stop until their pace times come up on the watch. After the two-mile point, the next time for men is given at four miles, and then
times are recorded at five miles. The athletes are allowed to run the last mile as fast as they wish. When the last mile split is calculated, the athlete's pace for interval training is determined. If the last mile was 4:40, the training pace for intervals will be 70 seconds per 400, as in the case of a runner like Prefontaine. If the last mile was 6:00, the pace will be 90 seconds. The pace is changed as the runner improves during the racing season. The training pace usually will be set at an average of the last three times in the cross country runs.
The Oregon cross country pattern is a 14-day cycle based upon years of training patterns. Like any other dynamic training program, it undergoes periodic changes and improvements. The terms used in the training schedule have already been described. The heavy use of fartlek and steady-pace runs is evident. The present system was described by Bill Dellinger, Bowerman's
successor at Oregon, coach of four NCAA cross country championship teams and co-coach of Steve Prefontaine (primary coach after Bowerman's retirement), as following the pattern in Table 9-2.
The cross country season begins after the opening of school, though the first organized practice may be held as soon as early August, depending on the school system's schedule. We begin the program with a "run," not a race. The distance is equal to the racing distance at the end of the season, which (for university competition) is 5 to 6 kilometers for women and 8 to 10 kilometers
for men. The male athletes run their distance at a pace of 6 to 7 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 37 to 43 minutes for 10 km. The women run their distance at a pace of 7 to 8 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 23 to 26 minutes for 5 km. This pace is submaximal, but it should be a comfortable, successful run for the athlete.
Before the start of the run, each athlete declares a pace. The times are given at the one- and two-mile points to give the runners an idea of how close they are to their paces. If athletes reach a mark in a time much faster than their declared paces, they must stop until their pace times come up on the watch. After the two-mile point, the next time for men is given at four miles, and then
times are recorded at five miles. The athletes are allowed to run the last mile as fast as they wish. When the last mile split is calculated, the athlete's pace for interval training is determined. If the last mile was 4:40, the training pace for intervals will be 70 seconds per 400, as in the case of a runner like Prefontaine. If the last mile was 6:00, the pace will be 90 seconds. The pace is changed as the runner improves during the racing season. The training pace usually will be set at an average of the last three times in the cross country runs.
The Oregon cross country pattern is a 14-day cycle based upon years of training patterns. Like any other dynamic training program, it undergoes periodic changes and improvements. The terms used in the training schedule have already been described. The heavy use of fartlek and steady-pace runs is evident. The present system was described by Bill Dellinger, Bowerman's
successor at Oregon, coach of four NCAA cross country championship teams and co-coach of Steve Prefontaine (primary coach after Bowerman's retirement), as following the pattern in Table 9-2.
The athletes need to learn to run on hills as well
as on the flat. Their posture should still be relatively upright, as on the
track, though the slopes cause some leaning. Runners should try not to let the
slopes cause them to lean too much, though. When they run uphill or downhill,
they should keep their legs a bit bent at the knee to allow for more play in a
joint in case of unexpected changes in the ground. When going uphill, they
should try not to lean too far forward, which could result in back strain and
"stabbing" at the ground with the feet. When running downhill, they should try
to avoid leaning back because hitting a wet spot might cause a rough landing on
the wrong part of the anatomy. Cross country is the season for developing a base
that will help the runner throughout the year.
During the cross country season, the training uses more fartlek and steady-pace running than interval training because the primary object is cardiovascular development. Interval training generally is used only one day a week, usually Tuesdays, and it is run at the date pace. The athletes should have a minimum of three weeks of training before they compete in any meets. No more than one meet should be scheduled per week. If the athletes were to race twice a week, they would have a difficult time making any real progress. With such a heavy racing schedule, they would be better off with a bookkeeper than a coach.
The training schedules are included at the end of this chapter. The training dates can be changed to reflect the local season.
During the cross country season, the training uses more fartlek and steady-pace running than interval training because the primary object is cardiovascular development. Interval training generally is used only one day a week, usually Tuesdays, and it is run at the date pace. The athletes should have a minimum of three weeks of training before they compete in any meets. No more than one meet should be scheduled per week. If the athletes were to race twice a week, they would have a difficult time making any real progress. With such a heavy racing schedule, they would be better off with a bookkeeper than a coach.
The training schedules are included at the end of this chapter. The training dates can be changed to reflect the local season.
Racing
Tactics in Cross Country
Cross country is a sport that allows runners to use a variety of tactical maneuvers. Because the terrain varies, the course turns, rises, and falls, and the weather and the opponents affect the racing conditions, successful runners must consider many factors before the race. Some examples of cross country tactics follow.
Cross country is a sport that allows runners to use a variety of tactical maneuvers. Because the terrain varies, the course turns, rises, and falls, and the weather and the opponents affect the racing conditions, successful runners must consider many factors before the race. Some examples of cross country tactics follow.
Check the entire course before the race. Ideally, the athletes should see the course before the day of the race so they do not get exhausted by the warm-up. They should learn what dangers and benefits the course has.
Go for position at the start. In dual meets, this tactic is rarely so important, but in major races, no course is wide enough to allow freedom of movement to slow starters. Some courses turn into narrow trails very soon. Athletes must run fast enough in the first 400m to get into position without risking later oxygen debt. Some long training runs should begin with a fast 400m from a group start, so this skill can be learned.
Surge to get out of heavy traffic. Sometimes, runners must use a faster pace to get ahead of the crowd. They should be careful that the pace does not overextend them, however.
Run against the opponents, not the watch. Because of course conditions, even-pace running may not be possible, as it is in road or track races.
Be ready to take advantage of an opponent's moment of weakness. Some runners slow down at a curve or after reaching the top of a hill. Runners should look for such sudden opportunities to make an effective move.
Make a move just after turning a corner or
crossing the top of a hill. Making sudden gains in position while out of sight
can be unnerving to an opponent.
Float up the hills, then surge on the downhill.
This tactic takes less energy, and most people slow down as they top the hill.
Be careful not to slow down too much after a
surge. The surging runner may fall too far off the pace and be caught by an
opponent.
Think of strength rather than speed at the end of
the race. An opponent's superior 400m or mile speed means nothing. No runner is
starting fresh at this point. The finishing kick comes down to who has more
strength and determination, not who has greater speed.
The Steeplechase
The steeplechase
is the real test of an athlete. The training for the steeplechase is basically
the same as that for a 3,000 or 5,000m runner. The only real difference involves
the hurdling activities. Ideally, the athlete will run a steeplechase about once
a month, or hopefully no more often than every two weeks until he gets into a
situation where he has to race twice as part of a single meet. Otherwise,
running the steeplechase too often can cause the steeplechaser to be "flattened
out" from giving too much in his practice and early competitive seasons.
The difference between training for the flat races and for the steeplechase is the hurdle training. Place hurdles and small logs (up to three feet in diameter, lying on their sides) around the track and off-track athletics areas of the campus for the runners to use for informal practice. One principle of training is that every male distance runner does some steeplechase training, whether or not
he ever runs a steeplechase in competition. This practice helps the coach discover potential steeplechasers, some of whom might not be inclined to volunteer for such a tough event. The runners practice jumping over the obstacles or stepping on and then over them while running on their own.
Some pace work is done over a distance of 200m on the track over the hurdles. This pace work is done with two arrangements of hurdles. In one case, only two hurdles are used, one set at the end of the first straight and the other at the end of the turn as the second straight begins. In the other case, about five hurdles are run, set 15 to 20 meters apart and included in a 200m run. In
both cases, the athlete runs about four intervals while working on his hurdling. He tries to hurdle as a hurdler would. During the early part of the year, the hurdles are set at 30 inches in height; as the training year progresses, the hurdles are raised to the three-foot height of the steeplechase barriers.
The steeplechasers practice over the water jump and barriers once a week. Except during regular competitions, the water jump does not have any water in the pit. The athletes run in a loop, going over the barrier or water jump perhaps four times. Except for this practice situation, they practice with the regular hurdles. The reason for this is simple: You can hit the regular hurdles and they move. The water-jump barrier does not move at all. The other barriers are over 12 feet long and weigh well over 200 pounds (90 kg). They do not move too freely, either. Finally, if an athlete prefers to step on the barriers rather than hurdle over them, he must work on this regularly. The athlete may place a barrier at the edge of the long-jump pit and practice running down the runway
and stepping onto and going over the barrier and into the sand.
The difference between training for the flat races and for the steeplechase is the hurdle training. Place hurdles and small logs (up to three feet in diameter, lying on their sides) around the track and off-track athletics areas of the campus for the runners to use for informal practice. One principle of training is that every male distance runner does some steeplechase training, whether or not
he ever runs a steeplechase in competition. This practice helps the coach discover potential steeplechasers, some of whom might not be inclined to volunteer for such a tough event. The runners practice jumping over the obstacles or stepping on and then over them while running on their own.
Some pace work is done over a distance of 200m on the track over the hurdles. This pace work is done with two arrangements of hurdles. In one case, only two hurdles are used, one set at the end of the first straight and the other at the end of the turn as the second straight begins. In the other case, about five hurdles are run, set 15 to 20 meters apart and included in a 200m run. In
both cases, the athlete runs about four intervals while working on his hurdling. He tries to hurdle as a hurdler would. During the early part of the year, the hurdles are set at 30 inches in height; as the training year progresses, the hurdles are raised to the three-foot height of the steeplechase barriers.
The steeplechasers practice over the water jump and barriers once a week. Except during regular competitions, the water jump does not have any water in the pit. The athletes run in a loop, going over the barrier or water jump perhaps four times. Except for this practice situation, they practice with the regular hurdles. The reason for this is simple: You can hit the regular hurdles and they move. The water-jump barrier does not move at all. The other barriers are over 12 feet long and weigh well over 200 pounds (90 kg). They do not move too freely, either. Finally, if an athlete prefers to step on the barriers rather than hurdle over them, he must work on this regularly. The athlete may place a barrier at the edge of the long-jump pit and practice running down the runway
and stepping onto and going over the barrier and into the sand.
The steeplechaser should not compete too much in
his event for it causes a lot of wear and tear. Also, he should not hurdle too
much, for it can be hard on the legs.
American steeplechasing would be helped greatly if the race were added to the high school competitive schedule. Unfortunately, few athletes are exposed to steeplechasing before college. A short, 2,000m (five-lap) race is an excellent high school event. When the race is longer than a mile, it begins to highlight the experts. This event can provide pre-college experience to many
runners, and it would be one more event for competitors, allowing more participants. The real objective of the entire sport is the joy of competition. The steeplechase training schedules can be found at the end of this chapter.
American steeplechasing would be helped greatly if the race were added to the high school competitive schedule. Unfortunately, few athletes are exposed to steeplechasing before college. A short, 2,000m (five-lap) race is an excellent high school event. When the race is longer than a mile, it begins to highlight the experts. This event can provide pre-college experience to many
runners, and it would be one more event for competitors, allowing more participants. The real objective of the entire sport is the joy of competition. The steeplechase training schedules can be found at the end of this chapter.
Steeplechase Racing Tactics
Most distance-running tactics hold true for the steeplechase. However, the hurdles add another dimension to the race: Some runners fall, especially at the first barrier. Athletes should run wide approaching the first hurdle so they have a clear look at where the barrier is. Some runners have run into the barrier, not realizing where it was until the runner ahead of them jumped suddenly. One way to stay safe is to step on the first barrier rather than hurdle it.
At every barrier, it is safer to move out to the side and have a clear view than to follow closely behind a runner, for two reasons. First, the athlete needs to judge exactly where the barrier is so he can time the clearance properly. Second, if the runner ahead falls while clearing the barrier, the trailing runners may fall over him or be injured while trying to avoid stepping on him.
The steeplechasers should try to get a straight
line for the last three or four steps to the water-jump barrier. After the first
lap, their feet will be wet and may slip on the barrier if they hit it at an
angle. The runner should stride onto the barrier with the heel down so that
their foot rolls across the top, and the toe of the shoe (and some spikes)
pushes off from the far side of the barrier,
propelling him across the water. The runner should not try to clear the water completely because it wastes energy. Some athletes hurdle over the barrier rather than step on it. This procedure can be marginally faster, but it may be more stressful on the legs, and the runner may land in deeper water.
The best way to run the race is to begin cautiously, avoiding getting caught in the crowd or following the early leader's pace, which is often too fast The runner moves into position after four laps, moving into the front three positions, just as suggested for the middle distances. He finishes strongly over the last one or two laps, but he must be especially careful of the barriers on the last lap. Some runners get carried away with the head-to-head competition and hit a barrier. The steeplechase is an event for the more courageous and determined athletes.
propelling him across the water. The runner should not try to clear the water completely because it wastes energy. Some athletes hurdle over the barrier rather than step on it. This procedure can be marginally faster, but it may be more stressful on the legs, and the runner may land in deeper water.
The best way to run the race is to begin cautiously, avoiding getting caught in the crowd or following the early leader's pace, which is often too fast The runner moves into position after four laps, moving into the front three positions, just as suggested for the middle distances. He finishes strongly over the last one or two laps, but he must be especially careful of the barriers on the last lap. Some runners get carried away with the head-to-head competition and hit a barrier. The steeplechase is an event for the more courageous and determined athletes.
The Long Middle Distances: Two Miles to Ten Kilometers
The training
principles and patterns for the longer distance races are the same as those
given for the shorter, middle-distance runs. The fall training is usually the
cross country training described previously. At the end of the cross country
season, in late November, the distance runners switch to training schedules that
more specifically apply to their racing distances on the track.
As in other events, follow the hard-easy principle
in planning the athletes' training programs. This area can be dangerous if the
coach attempts to overwork the athlete. Runners must not be sent beyond their
personal tolerance levels in training. The basic cycle used is one day of hard
or heavy training followed by one day of light or easy training. However, this
pattern is not universe. Most male athletes rarely need to cover more than 70 or
80 miles (50 or 60 miles for females) in the longer training weeks of the
winter.
Coaches and athletes should not assume that speed is less important for distance runners. A finishing sprint is always a potent weapon, and all highly competitive distance runners are swift at shorter distances. Though he had become an Olympic 5,000m runner, in 1958 Bill Dellinger ran an American record of 3:41.5 for 1500m, equivalent to a 3:59 mile. As a world-class marathoner in the early 1970s, Kenny Moore ran a 4:01 mile.
The tactics of the longer distance runs are essentially the same regardless of the racing distance: find out what the opposition can do, then determine how he or she can be beaten.
The training schedules are given fully at the end of this chapter. They can be adapted by the athlete for almost any racing distance between 1500m and the marathon because the principles and patterns are the same. Only the paces and the quantities differ.
Coaches and athletes should not assume that speed is less important for distance runners. A finishing sprint is always a potent weapon, and all highly competitive distance runners are swift at shorter distances. Though he had become an Olympic 5,000m runner, in 1958 Bill Dellinger ran an American record of 3:41.5 for 1500m, equivalent to a 3:59 mile. As a world-class marathoner in the early 1970s, Kenny Moore ran a 4:01 mile.
The tactics of the longer distance runs are essentially the same regardless of the racing distance: find out what the opposition can do, then determine how he or she can be beaten.
The training schedules are given fully at the end of this chapter. They can be adapted by the athlete for almost any racing distance between 1500m and the marathon because the principles and patterns are the same. Only the paces and the quantities differ.
Training for the Marathon
The marathon is
an event for the mature athlete, starting no sooner than their mid-20s. Success
at the highest levels requires great talent, just as in the other events. The
most influential factors on marathon performance are shown in Table
9-3.
Cross Country Training Schedules
Steeplechase Training Schedules
Distance Training Schedules
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