Improvement in running performance hinges on many factors. Specifically, running training benefits the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, which should, in turn, lead to an improvement in running performance. However, this improvement can be curtailed by neglecting or abusing the musculoskeletal system through inappropriate training-too much mileage at too
fast a pace. Even intelligent training can exacerbate muscle imbalances and anatomical shortcomings. Incorporating strength training into a holistic plan for performance enhancement makes sense on many levels. A well-designed strength program promotes running efficiency through a better, more effective gait. A well-designed running program following some simple, proven tenets
or best practices improves running economy by improving cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory efficiency.
This chapter explains the general concept of running training via the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, and how positive anatomical changes can occur as a result of an educated, intelligent approach to training.
Cardiovascular and Cardiorespiratory Systems
The cardiovascular system is a circulatory blood delivery system involving the heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins and arteries). Put simply, the heart pumps blood. The blood is carried away from the heart by arteries and returned to the heart by veins (figure 2.1).
The cardiorespiratory system involves the heart and lungs. Air is inhaled by breathing through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and other muscles push the air into the lungs, where the oxygen contained in the air becomes mixed with blood (figure 2.2). Figure 2.3 shows the muscles that work during respiration.
The interplay between the two systems works when the heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. This blood is mixed with the air (oxygen) that has been inhaled. The oxygenated blood is delivered back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. The heart's arteries then pump the blood, now complete with oxygen-rich red blood cells, to the body's muscles (figure
2.4) to promote movement-in this example, running.
How can running performance improve as a result of this interplay between the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems? Simply, the more developed your cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems are, the more blood flow your body produces. Greater blood flow means more oxygen-rich red blood cells are available to power your muscles and more plasma is available to aid in creating energy through a process called glycolysis.
Other factors such as neuromuscular fitness, muscular endurance, strength, and flexibility are involved in improving running performance. Coupled with the strong foundation of well-developed cardiothoracic systems (the heart and lungs are located in the thorax region of the body, hence the term cardiothorax), these other factors will help to produce sustainable improvements in performance. The science described in the preceding paragraphs becomes exercise science, and a useful primer for improving running performance when applied to a training model. The following discussion of training is rooted in the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems.
Performance Training Progression
Traditional training progressions consist of a well-developed base, or introductory, period consisting of easy runs of gradually increasing duration and strength training consisting of
lighter weights and higher repetitions. Normally this period is followed by a slightly shorter but still significantly lengthy duration of running strength training (threshold training and hills)
and strength training incorporating increasing resistance. The final phase is defined by a brief period of high-intensity (V02max) running coupled with a maintenance period of resistance training and planned rest (taper). The entire training progression ends with a competitive phase of racing, which seems incredibly short given the amount of time spent attaining the fitness to race. This training progression, also known as a training cycle, is then adapted based on its success or failure and race distances to be completed in the future and repeated, incorporating a well-defined rest period at the end of each cycle, for the duration of the runner's performance-based running career.
Please note that this is by no means the only concept of how running training should be structured. Ideas such as adaptive training and functional training (Gambetta's Athletic Development, Human Kinetics) are successful approaches to running training; however, the nuances of those training philosophies are not outlined in this book. Often, apparent differences in training philosophy boil down to simple semantics. Since training language is not codified, coaches do not always understand and apply terminology the same way. Our goal is to present an overall concept of the training progression in a simple but thorough manner without arguing the merits of different approaches.
Base, or Introductory, Training
The concept of base, or introductory, training is relatively simple, but the application is slightly more nuanced. Most coaches would agree that the pace of running during this phase is always easy and aerobic (based on the consumption of oxygen), not strenuous and anaerobic (using the oxygen present), and that the volume of training should gradually increase with down, or lesser-volume, weeks used to buffer the increase in volume, aid in recovery, and promote an adaption to a new training load. One systematic approach using a three-week training cycle incorporates four to six days of running training with a weekly increase in volume of 10 percent from week 1 to week 2; week 3 returns to the volume of the first week. For injury prevention, the weekly long run should not be more than 33 percent of the week's total volume. Two or three strength-training sessions emphasizing proper form and movement, not volume of weight, would complement this running training.
For a runner who is training for a race longer than a 10K, this phase of the training cycle is the lengthiest of a training progression because of the slower (relative to speed and muscle development) adaptations to training made by the cardiothoracic systems. Because relatively slow-paced aerobic runs take longer, they require the repeated inhalation of oxygen, the repetitive pumping of the heart, and the uninterrupted (ideally) flow of blood from the lungs to the heart and from the heart to the muscles. All of these actions aid in capillary development and improved blood flow. Increased capillary development aids both in delivering more blood to muscles and in the removal of waste products from muscles and other tissue that could impede the proper functioning of the muscles. However, these adaptations take time. The development of a distance runner may take a decade or more, while the development of faster-paced running can occur in half the time.
A training program that ignores or diminishes the importance of the base training component is a training program that ignores the tenets of exercise science. Without an extensive reliance on easy aerobic running, any performance-enhancement training program is destined for failure. A common question is how long the base period should last. This seemingly simple question does not have a simple answer, but the best reply is that the base period needs to last as long as the athlete needs to develop good running fitness and musculoskeletal strength based on his or her subjective interpretation of how easy the daily runs feel, but not so long that the athlete becomes bored or unmotivated. A good guideline for experienced runners who are training for races longer than 10K is six to eight weeks. Experienced runners training for 10K races or shorter distances need four to six weeks. For beginning runners, the base period takes longer, even making up the bulk of their first four to six months of running. Another common question is how fast the athlete should run. Short of getting a lactate threshold or stress test, which normally indicates approximately 70 to 75 percent of maximum heart rate or 70 percent of V02max, pace charts help determine aerobic training paces based on race performances (Daniels' Running Formula, Second Edition, Human Kinetics). They are extremely accurate and offer explanations of how to use the data effectively.
An emphasis on base, or introductory, training does not mean that other types of training are ignored or diminished in importance. The other types of running training-tempo, lactate, threshold, steady-state, hill, and V02max---are relegated to their specific roles in a well-designed training program. Also, neuromuscular development is needed to allow fast performances to occur.
These other types of training are meant to sharpen and focus the endurance developed during the base, or introductory, phase. However, because these other types of training also strengthen the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, they play an essential role in improving performance.
The best approach to strength training during this phase is to perform multiple sets of 10 to 12 repetitions of exercises for total-body strength development. Specifically, at this stage of training, functional strength is less important than developing muscular endurance for the whole body. If this is an athlete's first strength-training progression, the proper execution of the exercise becomes paramount. If an athlete is revisiting strength training after a rest period, becoming reacquainted with the physical demands of combining a running and strength-training program should be the goal. Strength training should be performed two or three times per week; however, one day a week should be entirely free of exercise, so the other workouts need to be performed either on running days after the runs or on the other off days from running if following a four- or five-day-a-week running plan.
Threshold Training
The concept of lactate threshold (LT) often associated with tempo-based running is a conversation point for many exercise physiologists, running coaches, and runners. The science of the concept, the lexicon to describe it, and the appropriate duration and pace of the effort offer endless possibilities for debate and argument. All too often an athlete's successful performance leads to the supposition that his or her interpretation of threshold training (if it is a cornerstone of the program) is the appropriate interpretation and therefore must be copied by the masses. We do not endeavor to make any definitive statements about lactate threshold protocols. We apply the term threshold (please feel free to substitute lactate threshold, anaerobic threshold, lactate turn point, or lactate curve) to describe the type of running that, because of the muscle contractions inherent in faster-paced training, produces a rising blood-lactate concentration that inhibits faster running or lengthier running at the same speed (figure 2.5)-or, less scientifically, a comfortably hard effort that one could sustain for approximately 5 to 6 miles (8 to 10 km) before reaching exhaustion. It is very close to 10K race pace.
Lactate---not lactic acid---is a fuel that is used by the muscles during prolonged exercise. Lactate released from the muscle is converted in the liver to glucose, which is then used as an energy source. It had been argued for years that lactic acid (chemically not the same compound as lactate, but normally used as a synonym) was the culprit when discussing performance-limiting
chemical by-products caused by intense physical effort. Instead, rather than cause fatigue, lactate can actually help to delay a possible lowering of blood glucose concentration, and ultimately can aid performance.
Threshold training also aids running performance because it provides a greater stimulus to the cardiothoracic systems than basic aerobic or recovery runs, and it does so without a correspondingly high impact on the musculoskeletal system because of its shorter duration. By running at a comfortably hard effort for 15 to 50 minutes (depending on your goal race and timing
of the effort in your training program), you can accelerate the rate at which your cardiothoracic systems develop. Tempo runs, which are often referred to interchangeably with lactate threshold runs, cruise intervals, and steady-state runs, which are slightly slower than tempos, are types of threshold workouts, just at slightly different paces and durations. Ultimately, the objective of a
lactate-type run, a measurement of 4 mmol of lactate if blood was drawn at points during the run, would be accomplished performing these runs instead of an easy aerobic run, which would produce almost no lactate.
A good resource on tempo-type training is Jack Daniels' Running Formula (Human Kinetics, 2005). The author recommends paces and durations of effort based on the athlete's current fitness and race distances to be attempted. Although less stressful on the runner's body than V02max efforts and races, threshold runs in any form (lactate threshold, tempo runs, cruise intervals,
repeat miles) require longer periods of recovery than daily aerobic or recovery runs. Most nonelite runners should perform threshold-type runs no more than once a week during this phase of the training progression, and need to treat them as hard efforts. They should be preceded by an easy run plus a set of strides (faster running at 40 to 60 meters [44 to 66 yards]) the day before,
and an easy or easy and long run the following day. Keep in mind that easy running still makes up the majority of this phase of training. The introduction of threshold-type training to the progression usually is the only difference from the introductory phase.
Strength training at this phase of a training progression is highly important and highly individual. The emphasis should be on countering the athlete's weakness and on functional exercises that directly correlate to running faster. For example, if a female runner lacks arm strength, an emphasis on arm exercises with lower reps (four to six) and higher weight (to exhaustion) would be called for. Also, if she was training for a 5K, functional hamstring strength would be important, so instead of performing hamstring curls, which emphasize only the hamstrings, the dumbbell Romanian deadlift and good morning exercises are more powerful exercises because they involve more of the anatomy (hamstring and glute complex) involved in the running gait. The hamstring curls should be performed in the base phase of training to develop general strength. Two strength-training workouts per week will suffice because of the intensity of the training. The muscle fibers must have a period of rest to repair themselves so they can adapt to an increasing workload.
V02max Training
Many exercise physiologists consider V02max and V02max training to be the most important components of a comprehensive running program; however, this view has been challenged by some of the younger coaches who are not scientists but have had success in running and coaching. Regardless of bias, V02max-specific workouts are a powerful training tool for improving
running performance---after performing the training leading up to it.
V02max is the peak rate of oxygen consumed during maximal or exhaustive exercise (see figure 2.5). Various tests involving exercising to exhaustion can be done to determine a V02max score (both a raw number and an adjusted one).
Once a V02max score is obtained, a runner can develop a training program that incorporates training at heart rate levels that equate to V02max levels. The training efforts, or repetitions, would not necessarily end in exhaustion, although they can, but would reach the heart rate equivalent of the V02max effort for a short period, approximately three to five minutes. The goal of this type of training is multifold. It requires the muscles incorporated to contract at such a fast pace as to be fully engaged, aiding in the neuromuscular component by placing a premium on nervous system coordination of the muscles involved in running at such a fast rate. Most important, it requires the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems to work at peak efficiency to deliver oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and to remove the waste products of the glycolytic (energy-producing) process.
Training at V02max levels is obviously a powerful training tool because of its intense recruitment of many of the body's systems. It is important to note that a V02max training phase needs to be incorporated at the appropriate time in a training cycle for the runner to fully benefit from its application. Despite some athletes' reporting success by reversing the training progression and
performing V02max workouts at the beginning of a training cycle, the most opportune time to add V02max training to a performance-based training plan is after a lengthy base period of easy aerobic or recovery training and a period of threshold training geared to the specific event to be completed. Rest is an important component of this phase since it aids in adaptation to the intense
stimulus of the V02max workouts. Do not be fooled into thinking that intense workouts and multiple races without rest is an intelligent training plan. It may deliver short-term success, but ultimately will lead to injury or excessive fatigue.
The strength training performed at this stage should be a set of exercises that are highly functional and specific to the event being contested and the literal strength of the runner. For example, a marathon runner who has a strong core would focus on his or her core with multiple sets of 12 reps. The exercises are equally divided between abdominal exercises and lower back exercises to
ensure balance. The emphasis is on muscular endurance. A 5K runner whose focus is speed would continue with the lower-rep, higher-weight routine of the threshold phase, emphasizing the upper legs, core, and upper torso.
Results of the Training Progression Model
As in math, each training phase builds on the by-products of the completion of the preceding phase. They are not isolated blocks, but an integrated system. For example, a completed base, or introductory, phase leads to increased capillary development, resulting in more blood volume, musculoskeletal enhancement, and, theoretically, a more efficient gait. Threshold training furthers the performance of the runner by advancing the development of the cardiothoracic systems, increasing the adaptation of the musculoskeletal system through faster muscle contractions, and heightening the body's neurological response to stimulus (faster-paced running). Anaerobic training (using oxygen already present) has little practical application to distance running, and for most non-elite runners does not factor into the training progression.
When these conditions have been met, the runner can easily begin a short course of high-intensity V02max training. The specifics of pace, duration, and rest are found in many training manuals, and the specific application of this type of training varies by individual. By following the strength-training recommendations for each phase of the running training progression, a runner is
really preparing his or her body for the rigors of a goal race or races.
The result of following a training program based on the development of the cardiothoracic systems is better performance through an improved "engine" (the heart and lungs) and a stronger "chassis" through strength training. Whether V02max is determined by the exhaustion of the heart first or the muscles first, the development of the cardiothoracic systems will permit the point of exhaustion to be reached (measured in heart rate) at a faster pace and allow a greater distance to be covered. This is a visible way that improvement
in performance can be measured.
fast a pace. Even intelligent training can exacerbate muscle imbalances and anatomical shortcomings. Incorporating strength training into a holistic plan for performance enhancement makes sense on many levels. A well-designed strength program promotes running efficiency through a better, more effective gait. A well-designed running program following some simple, proven tenets
or best practices improves running economy by improving cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory efficiency.
This chapter explains the general concept of running training via the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, and how positive anatomical changes can occur as a result of an educated, intelligent approach to training.
Cardiovascular and Cardiorespiratory Systems
The cardiovascular system is a circulatory blood delivery system involving the heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins and arteries). Put simply, the heart pumps blood. The blood is carried away from the heart by arteries and returned to the heart by veins (figure 2.1).
The cardiorespiratory system involves the heart and lungs. Air is inhaled by breathing through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and other muscles push the air into the lungs, where the oxygen contained in the air becomes mixed with blood (figure 2.2). Figure 2.3 shows the muscles that work during respiration.
The interplay between the two systems works when the heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. This blood is mixed with the air (oxygen) that has been inhaled. The oxygenated blood is delivered back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. The heart's arteries then pump the blood, now complete with oxygen-rich red blood cells, to the body's muscles (figure
2.4) to promote movement-in this example, running.
How can running performance improve as a result of this interplay between the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems? Simply, the more developed your cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems are, the more blood flow your body produces. Greater blood flow means more oxygen-rich red blood cells are available to power your muscles and more plasma is available to aid in creating energy through a process called glycolysis.
Other factors such as neuromuscular fitness, muscular endurance, strength, and flexibility are involved in improving running performance. Coupled with the strong foundation of well-developed cardiothoracic systems (the heart and lungs are located in the thorax region of the body, hence the term cardiothorax), these other factors will help to produce sustainable improvements in performance. The science described in the preceding paragraphs becomes exercise science, and a useful primer for improving running performance when applied to a training model. The following discussion of training is rooted in the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems.
Performance Training Progression
Traditional training progressions consist of a well-developed base, or introductory, period consisting of easy runs of gradually increasing duration and strength training consisting of
lighter weights and higher repetitions. Normally this period is followed by a slightly shorter but still significantly lengthy duration of running strength training (threshold training and hills)
and strength training incorporating increasing resistance. The final phase is defined by a brief period of high-intensity (V02max) running coupled with a maintenance period of resistance training and planned rest (taper). The entire training progression ends with a competitive phase of racing, which seems incredibly short given the amount of time spent attaining the fitness to race. This training progression, also known as a training cycle, is then adapted based on its success or failure and race distances to be completed in the future and repeated, incorporating a well-defined rest period at the end of each cycle, for the duration of the runner's performance-based running career.
Please note that this is by no means the only concept of how running training should be structured. Ideas such as adaptive training and functional training (Gambetta's Athletic Development, Human Kinetics) are successful approaches to running training; however, the nuances of those training philosophies are not outlined in this book. Often, apparent differences in training philosophy boil down to simple semantics. Since training language is not codified, coaches do not always understand and apply terminology the same way. Our goal is to present an overall concept of the training progression in a simple but thorough manner without arguing the merits of different approaches.
Base, or Introductory, Training
The concept of base, or introductory, training is relatively simple, but the application is slightly more nuanced. Most coaches would agree that the pace of running during this phase is always easy and aerobic (based on the consumption of oxygen), not strenuous and anaerobic (using the oxygen present), and that the volume of training should gradually increase with down, or lesser-volume, weeks used to buffer the increase in volume, aid in recovery, and promote an adaption to a new training load. One systematic approach using a three-week training cycle incorporates four to six days of running training with a weekly increase in volume of 10 percent from week 1 to week 2; week 3 returns to the volume of the first week. For injury prevention, the weekly long run should not be more than 33 percent of the week's total volume. Two or three strength-training sessions emphasizing proper form and movement, not volume of weight, would complement this running training.
For a runner who is training for a race longer than a 10K, this phase of the training cycle is the lengthiest of a training progression because of the slower (relative to speed and muscle development) adaptations to training made by the cardiothoracic systems. Because relatively slow-paced aerobic runs take longer, they require the repeated inhalation of oxygen, the repetitive pumping of the heart, and the uninterrupted (ideally) flow of blood from the lungs to the heart and from the heart to the muscles. All of these actions aid in capillary development and improved blood flow. Increased capillary development aids both in delivering more blood to muscles and in the removal of waste products from muscles and other tissue that could impede the proper functioning of the muscles. However, these adaptations take time. The development of a distance runner may take a decade or more, while the development of faster-paced running can occur in half the time.
A training program that ignores or diminishes the importance of the base training component is a training program that ignores the tenets of exercise science. Without an extensive reliance on easy aerobic running, any performance-enhancement training program is destined for failure. A common question is how long the base period should last. This seemingly simple question does not have a simple answer, but the best reply is that the base period needs to last as long as the athlete needs to develop good running fitness and musculoskeletal strength based on his or her subjective interpretation of how easy the daily runs feel, but not so long that the athlete becomes bored or unmotivated. A good guideline for experienced runners who are training for races longer than 10K is six to eight weeks. Experienced runners training for 10K races or shorter distances need four to six weeks. For beginning runners, the base period takes longer, even making up the bulk of their first four to six months of running. Another common question is how fast the athlete should run. Short of getting a lactate threshold or stress test, which normally indicates approximately 70 to 75 percent of maximum heart rate or 70 percent of V02max, pace charts help determine aerobic training paces based on race performances (Daniels' Running Formula, Second Edition, Human Kinetics). They are extremely accurate and offer explanations of how to use the data effectively.
An emphasis on base, or introductory, training does not mean that other types of training are ignored or diminished in importance. The other types of running training-tempo, lactate, threshold, steady-state, hill, and V02max---are relegated to their specific roles in a well-designed training program. Also, neuromuscular development is needed to allow fast performances to occur.
These other types of training are meant to sharpen and focus the endurance developed during the base, or introductory, phase. However, because these other types of training also strengthen the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, they play an essential role in improving performance.
The best approach to strength training during this phase is to perform multiple sets of 10 to 12 repetitions of exercises for total-body strength development. Specifically, at this stage of training, functional strength is less important than developing muscular endurance for the whole body. If this is an athlete's first strength-training progression, the proper execution of the exercise becomes paramount. If an athlete is revisiting strength training after a rest period, becoming reacquainted with the physical demands of combining a running and strength-training program should be the goal. Strength training should be performed two or three times per week; however, one day a week should be entirely free of exercise, so the other workouts need to be performed either on running days after the runs or on the other off days from running if following a four- or five-day-a-week running plan.
Threshold Training
The concept of lactate threshold (LT) often associated with tempo-based running is a conversation point for many exercise physiologists, running coaches, and runners. The science of the concept, the lexicon to describe it, and the appropriate duration and pace of the effort offer endless possibilities for debate and argument. All too often an athlete's successful performance leads to the supposition that his or her interpretation of threshold training (if it is a cornerstone of the program) is the appropriate interpretation and therefore must be copied by the masses. We do not endeavor to make any definitive statements about lactate threshold protocols. We apply the term threshold (please feel free to substitute lactate threshold, anaerobic threshold, lactate turn point, or lactate curve) to describe the type of running that, because of the muscle contractions inherent in faster-paced training, produces a rising blood-lactate concentration that inhibits faster running or lengthier running at the same speed (figure 2.5)-or, less scientifically, a comfortably hard effort that one could sustain for approximately 5 to 6 miles (8 to 10 km) before reaching exhaustion. It is very close to 10K race pace.
Lactate---not lactic acid---is a fuel that is used by the muscles during prolonged exercise. Lactate released from the muscle is converted in the liver to glucose, which is then used as an energy source. It had been argued for years that lactic acid (chemically not the same compound as lactate, but normally used as a synonym) was the culprit when discussing performance-limiting
chemical by-products caused by intense physical effort. Instead, rather than cause fatigue, lactate can actually help to delay a possible lowering of blood glucose concentration, and ultimately can aid performance.
Threshold training also aids running performance because it provides a greater stimulus to the cardiothoracic systems than basic aerobic or recovery runs, and it does so without a correspondingly high impact on the musculoskeletal system because of its shorter duration. By running at a comfortably hard effort for 15 to 50 minutes (depending on your goal race and timing
of the effort in your training program), you can accelerate the rate at which your cardiothoracic systems develop. Tempo runs, which are often referred to interchangeably with lactate threshold runs, cruise intervals, and steady-state runs, which are slightly slower than tempos, are types of threshold workouts, just at slightly different paces and durations. Ultimately, the objective of a
lactate-type run, a measurement of 4 mmol of lactate if blood was drawn at points during the run, would be accomplished performing these runs instead of an easy aerobic run, which would produce almost no lactate.
A good resource on tempo-type training is Jack Daniels' Running Formula (Human Kinetics, 2005). The author recommends paces and durations of effort based on the athlete's current fitness and race distances to be attempted. Although less stressful on the runner's body than V02max efforts and races, threshold runs in any form (lactate threshold, tempo runs, cruise intervals,
repeat miles) require longer periods of recovery than daily aerobic or recovery runs. Most nonelite runners should perform threshold-type runs no more than once a week during this phase of the training progression, and need to treat them as hard efforts. They should be preceded by an easy run plus a set of strides (faster running at 40 to 60 meters [44 to 66 yards]) the day before,
and an easy or easy and long run the following day. Keep in mind that easy running still makes up the majority of this phase of training. The introduction of threshold-type training to the progression usually is the only difference from the introductory phase.
Strength training at this phase of a training progression is highly important and highly individual. The emphasis should be on countering the athlete's weakness and on functional exercises that directly correlate to running faster. For example, if a female runner lacks arm strength, an emphasis on arm exercises with lower reps (four to six) and higher weight (to exhaustion) would be called for. Also, if she was training for a 5K, functional hamstring strength would be important, so instead of performing hamstring curls, which emphasize only the hamstrings, the dumbbell Romanian deadlift and good morning exercises are more powerful exercises because they involve more of the anatomy (hamstring and glute complex) involved in the running gait. The hamstring curls should be performed in the base phase of training to develop general strength. Two strength-training workouts per week will suffice because of the intensity of the training. The muscle fibers must have a period of rest to repair themselves so they can adapt to an increasing workload.
V02max Training
Many exercise physiologists consider V02max and V02max training to be the most important components of a comprehensive running program; however, this view has been challenged by some of the younger coaches who are not scientists but have had success in running and coaching. Regardless of bias, V02max-specific workouts are a powerful training tool for improving
running performance---after performing the training leading up to it.
V02max is the peak rate of oxygen consumed during maximal or exhaustive exercise (see figure 2.5). Various tests involving exercising to exhaustion can be done to determine a V02max score (both a raw number and an adjusted one).
Once a V02max score is obtained, a runner can develop a training program that incorporates training at heart rate levels that equate to V02max levels. The training efforts, or repetitions, would not necessarily end in exhaustion, although they can, but would reach the heart rate equivalent of the V02max effort for a short period, approximately three to five minutes. The goal of this type of training is multifold. It requires the muscles incorporated to contract at such a fast pace as to be fully engaged, aiding in the neuromuscular component by placing a premium on nervous system coordination of the muscles involved in running at such a fast rate. Most important, it requires the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems to work at peak efficiency to deliver oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and to remove the waste products of the glycolytic (energy-producing) process.
Training at V02max levels is obviously a powerful training tool because of its intense recruitment of many of the body's systems. It is important to note that a V02max training phase needs to be incorporated at the appropriate time in a training cycle for the runner to fully benefit from its application. Despite some athletes' reporting success by reversing the training progression and
performing V02max workouts at the beginning of a training cycle, the most opportune time to add V02max training to a performance-based training plan is after a lengthy base period of easy aerobic or recovery training and a period of threshold training geared to the specific event to be completed. Rest is an important component of this phase since it aids in adaptation to the intense
stimulus of the V02max workouts. Do not be fooled into thinking that intense workouts and multiple races without rest is an intelligent training plan. It may deliver short-term success, but ultimately will lead to injury or excessive fatigue.
The strength training performed at this stage should be a set of exercises that are highly functional and specific to the event being contested and the literal strength of the runner. For example, a marathon runner who has a strong core would focus on his or her core with multiple sets of 12 reps. The exercises are equally divided between abdominal exercises and lower back exercises to
ensure balance. The emphasis is on muscular endurance. A 5K runner whose focus is speed would continue with the lower-rep, higher-weight routine of the threshold phase, emphasizing the upper legs, core, and upper torso.
Results of the Training Progression Model
As in math, each training phase builds on the by-products of the completion of the preceding phase. They are not isolated blocks, but an integrated system. For example, a completed base, or introductory, phase leads to increased capillary development, resulting in more blood volume, musculoskeletal enhancement, and, theoretically, a more efficient gait. Threshold training furthers the performance of the runner by advancing the development of the cardiothoracic systems, increasing the adaptation of the musculoskeletal system through faster muscle contractions, and heightening the body's neurological response to stimulus (faster-paced running). Anaerobic training (using oxygen already present) has little practical application to distance running, and for most non-elite runners does not factor into the training progression.
When these conditions have been met, the runner can easily begin a short course of high-intensity V02max training. The specifics of pace, duration, and rest are found in many training manuals, and the specific application of this type of training varies by individual. By following the strength-training recommendations for each phase of the running training progression, a runner is
really preparing his or her body for the rigors of a goal race or races.
The result of following a training program based on the development of the cardiothoracic systems is better performance through an improved "engine" (the heart and lungs) and a stronger "chassis" through strength training. Whether V02max is determined by the exhaustion of the heart first or the muscles first, the development of the cardiothoracic systems will permit the point of exhaustion to be reached (measured in heart rate) at a faster pace and allow a greater distance to be covered. This is a visible way that improvement
in performance can be measured.
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