Staying Motivated & Beyond: Mental Aspects

Staying Motivated and Beyond: Mental Aspects of Running

    THE LONGER YOU ENGAGE IN A RUNNING PROGRAM, the easier it becomes to stick with it. In fact, after a few years of the sport, many runners report feeling "not quite right" after a stretch of inactivity-a feeling that's as much mental as physical. When you reach that stage, motivation is hardly a problem. A run is often the highlight of your day.

    But until that point arrives, most runners will wake up to days when staying in bed seems more inviting than the dark, heat, cold, wind, or whatever else awaits them outdoors. On these days, figuring out how to stay motivated is crucial.
    Motivation can droop for any number of reasons: Boredom, lack of results, stress, and a shortage of time are primary among them. Some people are natural experts at finding motivation even in the face of such adversity. But if you're more inclined to fold than to fight, you can still develop motivation, just as you'd develop your muscles.
    When you find yourself dreading a run instead of looking forward to it, you should first determine whether your feelings are truly due to laziness or boredom or whether they are instead a sign of exhaustion or an oncoming bout of illness. If the latter, you'd be smart to listen to your body and modify or skip the workout.

    But if you're otherwise healthy, beware the classic signs of lack of motivation: finding excuses not to run, stalling with other projects, or experiencing feelings of boredom or listlessness. When you find yourself in that lazy frame of mind, try some of the tips outlined in the rest of this chapter. And even if you succumb to the couch one day, don't put yourself down. Instead, just make sure not to let one poor day stretch into a pattern of inactivity. Every day is a fresh start; don't measure yourself by yesterday's troubles. Finally, remember that just about whatever you're suffering from, you'll feel much better after you go for a run.
    When boredom strikes, fight back. If you're fighting boredom, it's probably a sign that you could use some variety and new challenges in your running. Do you always run in the same place? At the same speed? For the same distance? No wonder your motivation is flagging.
    Many runners become creatures of habit; they do the same three or four loops over and over again. When you find that you've dug yourself a rut, shake yourself out of it. There are no rules in running, so go have some fun: Leave your watch at home and run just by feel. Drive to a new trail for a change of scenery. Plan a run with friends to a cafe in the next town (drop a car there before you start). When you have time, set out on an adventure, taking every turn your heart desires. Chances are you'll discover a renewed sense of wonder along with a new running route.
    Take the first few steps. You can often overcome lack of motivation by focusing only on getting started rather than working up the gumption to take on an entire workout. It's been said that the first step out the door is the hardest, and any runner will attest to that truth. When laziness strikes, make a deal with yourself that you'll at least give the run a try. Change clothes, head out the door, and start moving. In most cases, the fresh air and circulation will have an energizing effect, stimulating you enough to get through the run. If, after 10 minutes or so, you're still truly trudging, try
walking or just call it a day. Maybe you're overtired and your body is trying to tell you that you need rest more than exercise.
    It might help to remember that even the best runners in the world have days when their minds and bodies would rather head out for ice cream than for a workout. Jackie Joyner-Kersee, one of the greatest female athletes of all time, admits that she played the just-get-out-the-door game, too, when she was competing. "I' d tell myself just to start," she once said. "Then, even if I couldn't get through it all, at least I'd done something."
    Make running a priority. People don't marvel when you show up for work every day; it's expected. Try giving your run the same type of priority in your schedule. If this seems daunting, try it out for just 2 weeks-enough time to set a new pattern. Think of it as an investment in yourself.
    Be social. Set a date to run with a partner. It's harder to skip a run when you know that a friend is relying on you.
   Do dwell on the past. Think back to previous runs and how good you felt during and afterward. Chances are that if you're feeling unmotivated, your energy could use a jump-start, and running will be just the thing.
    Prepare the outfit for your run. Place your running shoes and clothes by your bedside if you run in the morning. If you run right after work, set them out next to your desk. Having your running attire in plain view will help motivate you to run.
   Set a goal. Without a goal to strive for, working out can seem aimless and pointless. Some runners find it hard to train at all if they don't have a race, social event, or other goal to shoot for. Anyone can have a goal; it needn't be a fast time in a race. Beginners can aim for running 30 minutes without stopping or just for exercising 5 days a week for a month.

    MAINTAIN A POSITIVE ATTITUDE
    A big part of motivation is not letting the doldrums creep into our mindset. All runners have days when their legs feel as if they just won't move. They feel sluggish and "flat," and no matter how hard they try, they can't find a comfortable groove. Some women react with tension when their bodies don't do what's expected. As expectations become loaded and muscles grow tight, running becomes even harder. Motivation can suffer as a result. The cycle, which can go on for days or weeks, can lead to frustration, anger, and even depression. Professional runners know that there will always be those days. No matter what your running level, you'd do well to keep their wisdom in mind.
    Willie Rios, who specializes in coaching women distance runners, drills the importance of staying positive into each of his runners' heads. Rios likes to recount one story of a runner who was having a frustrating workout. "She was getting angry because her times were so much slower than they had been," he says. "By changing the focus of the workout---in this case, to thinking about the triumph of just completing it on a day where it would have been easy to walk away---she had an opportunity to learn something about herself and to experience a success rather than a defeat."
    Within every run, there are successes and defeats. As an advanced runner, you learn that you can make a conscious decision to focus on either the negative or the positive. Sure, you can always find defeats: not going as fast as you had hoped, not feeling light on your feet, not having time to run as far as you expected. But you can always find successes just as easily. Some days, it's going farther or pushing harder than ever before. Some days, the success is just getting out the door. Some days-on the really rough days a success can be as simple as staying in good spirits and reminding yourself that tomorrow is a fresh opportunity to feel better. It's a lesson that, once learned on the run, proves invaluable when applied to other aspects of life.     Rios has been known to admonish women who downplay their accomplishments or find fault after every workout. "When you beat yourself up like that, you invite every abusive person from your past back into your life. You reinforce any negative message ever heard from a boss, boyfriend, or husband," he says. "You don't want other people to treat you like that. Why would you do it to yourself?"
    A positive attitude can be cultivated. Try some of these ideas:
    After every run, find at least one success. Perhaps you allowed yourself to relax and enjoy the clouds. Or maybe you felt tired but didn't let that stop you. The more ways you can find success, the happier you will be with your running.
    Write or recite positive affirmations. Negativity often stems from a difference between your perception of where you are and your perception of where you want to be. Instead of dwelling on negative self-talk, replace it with positive affirmation. For example, when you find yourself thinking, I can't believe I ran that slowly, try telling yourself instead, I am lucky to be blessed with strong, healthy legs.
   Build a positive support team. It's important to surround yourself with people who want you to succeed. (That goes for running, but it's sage advice for every aspect of your life.) Professional runners are experts at creating support systems that encourage their best performance. Detach yourself from running partners, "friends," and coaches who downplay your achievements, question your goals, deride your weight, or make you feel generally miserable about yourself. Find others who boost your confidence and encourage your efforts.
    Keep running in perspective. Just as women go through different phases in work and home life, they can expect to go through different phases in their running. Recognizing this can go a long way toward alleviating frustration and allowing only positive forces to flow from the sport.
    If you've become used to the daily affirmation of an energizing run, an interruption in the routine can prove devastating. A new job, a return to school, a baby---any number of changes can shift priorities and make running seem more of a chore than a rejuvenation. An ensuing cycle of failed expectations can foster self-doubt and negativity.

    Susan Kalish, former executive director of the American Running Association, went through such a period after the birth of her first child. "I felt gross and fat and embarrassed," she remembers. "I didn't return to fitness anywhere near as fast as I thought I would, and I felt like my running, which had been my good friend, was humiliating me."
    After the birth of her second child, Kalish decided to take a different approach, removing any expectation of a timeline in which to return to her former level of running. The approach worked, and she once again reaped the positive benefits she had remembered. "I had thought running was letting me down, but it was just changing," she says.
    It is particularly important for women, who are busy with so many responsibilities to others, to keep running in perspective. Remember that running should not become just another source of pressure or expectation. Think of your run as your own personal time to meditate, relax, enjoy, and think. You'll be guaranteed to find motivation for this time of the day.

    THE MANY BENEFITS OF MENTAL FITNESS
    Staying motivated is an aspect of running that you must work at and develop. But there's a flip side to exercising your mental muscle: The mental strength that the sport demands and encourages leads to benefits that extend far beyond the physical. In a way, running gives back as much as---or even more than---it takes. As you work to develop your motivation and as you
progress with your running, don't be surprised if you find a positive impact on other areas of your life.
    Take this example: Sitting down to breakfast the day before a race, a number of female runners were discussing why they ran. Time to myself, some said. Empowerment. Sanity. When it was one woman's turn to speak, she listed a few reasons. Stress relief Fitness, of course. And then came this: Recently, one woman's husband had attacked her for the first time. Running was something
she could do for herself in order to feel strong and in control.
    The women at the table nodded their heads in understanding. Not one of them seemed particularly shocked by this stranger's soul-baring statement. In some way, they'd been there themselves. They hadn't necessarily been victims of physical abuse. But they had needed a sense of strength and control in their lives. Maybe the feeling came when they started a new job. Or
when one of their children was troubled. Or when they were suffering from pointed loneliness. Somehow, running had given them strength.
    It's something that women runners themselves marvel at. Get them in a group and invariably the subject will meander over to something far deeper than split times and waist sizes. For most women runners, the sport is more than a great aerobic workout; in some way, it fills a corner of their souls. Women speak of running as meditation, therapy, quiet time, an outlet for emotion, a
catalyst for growth, a microcosm of their bigger picture. Running takes on these roles and more, often with powerful effects on your whole life.
    Anne Audain, one of the sport's first female professionals and cofounder of the St. Luke's Women's Fitness Celebration, in Boise, Idaho, says that she boils the essence and benefits of running down to one word: movement. It's a word that comes up time and again when speaking to women about the impact of their running.
    "By movement, I mean cleansing," Audain says. "By moving the body itself, you are moving not just air, food, and blood but even thought through the body. If you let things sit still, you'll get cobwebs. Movement gives you so much more energy."
    And that means energy for all aspects of your life: physical, mental, and emotional. Runners quickly realize that the three are connected. Many women who enter the sport for the health or weight management benefits find themselves continuing for the mental and emotional energy. In a survey of women runners of all ages and abilities, more than half said that stress relief and time by themselves were the main reasons they ran.
    Marathoner Jerry Lynch, Ph.D., one of the country's premier sports psychologists and founder of the TaoSports Center for Human Potential in Santa Cruz, California, puts it this way: ''A woman who embraces a running program and the movement that comes with it now has a metaphor for movement in the rest of her life." Dr. Lynch believes that many women who find themselves at a crossroads in life are ripe to discover the integration of body, mind, and spirit that running offers. Although these women focus on their bodies as the starting point for change when they begin running, the benefits can't help but move into other parts of their lives as well. Mary, 52, is a great example. After only 3 months in the sport, she decided to run a marathon. "I'm at a crossroads in my life," she explained. "I needed a change; I'm going back to school, and it's all connected for me. If I can take this step with the running, then I can take the others as well," Now that's motivation. 

    How is it that an act as simple as putting one foot in front of the other can reap such complex rewards? The key might be running's simplicity. The sport lends itself to a meditative quality that's not possible in many other activities. Self-propelled and in touch with the ground, not reliant on or distracted by equipment, the runner finds that her mind is free to wander or focus as she chooses.
    "It is something that is unique to running. You see it somewhat in other individual sports, but particularly in running because it is so measurable," says Diane Palmason, who holds age-group records in distances ranging from 200 meters to 50 miles for women over the age of 60. "When you accomplish something in running, it is so obvious that it is you and you alone who accomplished it. In other areas of our life, there is rarely an obvious measure. In running, when you achieve a quantifiable goal, you have every right to feel good about yourself."

    When women do achieve goals in running---whether losing 20 pounds or breaking 20 minutes for a 5-K---they grow far beyond those results, and sometimes beyond what men would experience in similar situations.
    Although men have grown up developing positive self-images through sports, most middle-age and older women have yet to experience similar affirmation. Women who come to sports later in life find their own playing ground on which to develop confidence and control. With girls today taking part in sports as a matter of fact, future generations of women probably won't have to wait until middle age to make such gains.
    Running can have such a positive effect in a woman's life that clinical psychologist Leon J. Hoffman, Ph.D., includes the sport as treatment in his Chicago practice. "Unfortunately, in today's world, affirmation is crucial," says Dr. Hoffman, a member of the American Running Association. "Some women have problems because they have been trained to be funnels, not cups. For these women, when the applause stops, the depression sets in. But running can fill that. A woman can do it at her own pace, be assertive, try different things, be expressive, enjoy her body. She can give all these good things to herself, and not have to rely on somebody else or have it be in response to a man."
    Sports psychologist Lynch says that running and women are a natural match. The sport requires one to be fluid, or "soft but strong," which he considers intrinsically feminine characteristics. "Women tend to find the more spiritual, deeper side of running. It is just natural for women to align themselves with the concepts of courage, companionship, and cooperation. Win or lose, when women run a race, at the end they hug, congratulate each other, and then talk about how to improve the next time, all the while learning and achieving their goals."

The Road to Self-Discovery
    Many women find that running changes their lives for the better in some way, large or small. These women felt so strongly about the benefits that they made running their life's work.
    ►   For me, running resulted in a total coming out from a caterpillar into a butterfly. Maybe nobody else could see it, but I could. It started when my 12-year-old daughter beat the whole school in the 600-yard dash---the boys, too. We saw that she had some talent and, to encourage her running, I took her to the track. I sat on the sidelines and watched her all summer. Finally my girlfriend and I started slogging around the track ourselves. At the age of 32, I realized that I could run, and even run fast. That confidence totally changed my outlook on life. It was the start of a
great blossoming.
    -HENLEY GABEAU, former executive director, Road Runners Club of America
    ►   When I started running, I was married and a mother of four. And that's how I saw myself: as a mother and a wife-certainly all those things before an individual. But when I started running, I was surprised to see that the people I ran with didn't care about those other things. They related to me as Diane. It gave me a strong feeling of who I was, separate from all the roles I had. Ultimately, it gave me courage to make changes in the rest of my life, including seeking more supportive relationships.
    -DIANE PALMASON, champion 60+ age-group competitor and cofounder of Women's Running Camps
    ►   I was born with bone deformities and had both feet re-formed when I was 13. I first joined a running club when I was going through rehab as a kid. Women weren't allowed to run very far back then, only 400 and 800 meters, but I loved it immediately. For me, even though I did it competitively, I used running as a meditation for all those years. To this day, if I have a business
decision to make, or if I have some stress, or if something is just really annoying me, I'll go out and run. If the run makes it go away, I think, Okay, it's not that important. If it's still there bothering me, then I know I need to deal with it. It's my form of stress release and meditation.
    -ANNE AUDAIN, Cofounder of the St. Luke's Women's Fitness Celebration and one of the first professional female runners

HOW RUNNING HELPS WOMEN
    Almost any physical activity will improve your mental state. A body of research has shown that exercise, particularly endurance-oriented activity, can elevate moods and alleviate stress in both men and women. But speak to women runners, and you'll find more going on than a simple endorphin buzz. The benefits seem to go beyond science and benefits at the cellular level.
    See if any of these comments from women runners ring a bell with you:
    ►   "Running has a very calming effect on me; it's a time when I meditate and work out unsolved problems and generate my most creative thinking."
    ►   "I feel so great about myself and my life after a run."
    ►   "It's very empowering to feel strong and to have the mental endurance to be by myself for hours at a time."
    ►   "Running makes me happy and optimistic; it helps me solve problems and get a better perspective."
    ►   "Running gives me confidence and inner peace. I am stronger and more in tune with where I'm going in life."
    ►   "It gives me a boost in my self-esteem---it makes me think I can do other things."
    ►   "I now have a confidence and a sense of competence that has filled all of my life."

TRAINING LOG
    I ran in the rain today, a loamy smell escaping the warm spring earth. I ran at first a grown woman, slowly, slowly growing new once more.
    I ran through mud puddles on the trail, the cold, thin brew of coffee-and-milk-colored water shocking my toes awake. I ran until I slipped the world of time and taxes, work and weariness that I had left at my desk just minutes before.
    I ran until there wasn't an inch of dryness to be found. Drenched and dripping, giving in, a smile spread across my face. I ran until I was a child.
    And the others still out in the rain---the ones who hadn't scurried back inside, who had also given in---they replied with smiles of their own. We were all children out there, running in the rain, no matter our age.
    As the thunderclouds slipped down the mountainside and closed in around the trail, I turned toward home. Floating along in my child's stride. Un-tired. Un-bound. The closest thing to child's play.
    I imagined myself an old woman, twenty years or so down the road. Still running. Lacing up my shoes and leaving worries and old bones at the door. Floating along in my child's stride. Slower, to be sure, but still running. Growing young again each day, if only for an hour.
    Every run is a work of art, a drawing on each day's canvas. Some runs are shouts and some runs are whispers. Some runs are eulogies and others celebrations. When you're angry, a run can be a sharp slap in the face. When happy, a run is your song. And when your running progresses enough to become the chrysalis through which life is viewed, motivation is almost beside the point. Rather, it's running that motivates you for everything else the day holds.

FROM: Complete Book of Women's Running By Dagny Scott Barrios -- Chapter 12

The Trigger Point

What are Trigger Points? The research of Dr. Janet Travell and Dr. David Simons showed tiny contraction knots in your muscles and tissues known as “trigger points”.  They quote trigger points are the primary cause of pain 75% of the time and a factor in almost every painful condition. In short, Trigger Points develop when an area of the body is injured or “over used and abused”.  For instance, a single event can initiate a trigger point, such as a sports injury or even a car accident. Trigger points can also develop over time through muscle and tendon strain from repetitive movements at work. On a long term basis, you can even get trigger points from postural strain from standing or sitting improperly for long periods at the computer or even in your car.  I know my right shoulder is stiffer from using my computer mouse, as I am right handed.  As well, my neck is a bit stiffer which makes checking the blind spot (or reversing) in my car a bit more tedious.  What do you expect?  I’ve been bogging for over 3 years! At an emotion level, you can even say trigger points are caused by emotion stress and anxiety.  Some even go as far as nutritional deficiencies and toxins, but I’ll save that for Raymond Francis’s theory. How Bad are Trigger Points? Trigger points cause muscles and tissues to tighten and shorten. These hyper-irritated hardened masses cause so much pain and tenderness that you alter the way you move, sit or stand to instinctively protect yourself. By limiting the use of the painful muscle, the surrounding muscle begins to weaken. Your altered patterns of movement puts abnormal stress on your muscles, ligaments and joints. This leads to strength and flexibility imbalances in your muscles as well as postural dysfunctions throughout your body.  This "use and abuse and disuse" scenario creates more trigger points in other areas and a vicious cycle begins. Before you know it, you’ve developed clusters of active and latent trigger points. You’ve also given up doing the things you love to do because it simply hurts too much. And that could mean retiring from Track and Field.  Or Blogging. But I wouldn’t want you to do that.  The next series will focus on myofascial release and in particular SELF-myofascial release since we all don’t have a huge physiotherapy budget. References: The Trigger Point Therapy Workbook: Your Self-Treatment Guide for Pain Relief, Second Edition Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual; Vol. 1. The Upper Half of Body Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual; Vol. 2., The Lower Extremities

The 3 Laws of Speed Development

The 3 Laws of Speed Development The First Law of Speed Development: Speed is a Skill The dividing line between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ (if you believe in such concepts) coaches starts with understanding that running fast requires developing technical skill in your athletes, regardless of sport. Ignore, neglect or dismiss this Law and your athletes have already lost. Running fast requires significant degrees of coordination, consistency and deliberate repetition. Because most athletes have never been taught the specific qualities inherent in the fastest athletes, they need the skilled and watchful eye of a coach in order to make consistent improvements and/or experience consistent success. Think about how many steps your athletes have taken in their lives during practice and competition. If they’ve never been taught the Skill of Running Fast, every step they’ve taken has further ingrained bad habits into their neuromuscular system. As coaches, our responsibility is to teach athletes to unlearn these bad habits and replace them with specific skill. Acceleration is the most important component of running fast. If we can’t accelerate properly, we’ll never actually hit top speed. For sprinters, this would be the Kiss of Death. For field/court sport athletes, the problem is the same, it just manifests earlier in the competitive environment. But for today’s purposes, let’s look at acceleration. Here are 8 specific skills athletes must be able to successfully and consistently execute before they reach top speed.  For sub-collegiate athletes, top speed will be reached somewhere between 20-30m. This means athletes must be able to coordinate the following within 3-4 seconds: 1.      Drive the lead arm 2.      Drive out at a 45 degree angle 3.      Take a big first step 4.      Triple extension before first contact 5.      Drive the arms/hands down and back 6.      Push the ground back and away (foot strike below or behind the hips) 7.      Low heel recovery for the first 6-8 steps 8.      Let the upper body unfold naturally As coaches, the above list should be common knowledge to us. If we don’t already have a system for introducing, teaching, cueing, correcting and adding to this list, then we are not doing a sufficient job of coaching our athletes. It’s just that simple. The Second Law of Speed Development: Run a ‘Short to Long’ Program This is where the inefficacy of ‘fly 40s’ during the first week of practice comes into full light. A ‘Fly 40’ (or any ‘fly’ run) is considered a top speed exercise. If you’re unfamiliar with what a ‘fly’ run is, here is a quick description. A cone is set up at the starting line (0m), 25m, 65m and 95m. The athlete sprints to the first cone using the skills they are learning under the umbrella of the First Law of Speed Development. Once the athlete reaches top speed (25m) they should be fully transitioned to top speed mechanics and effort (a topic for another day). They (attempt to) maintain top speed mechanics during the ‘fly’ portion of the run (25m – 65m) which is where the term ‘fly 40’ comes into play. At 65m they shut it down, coming to a full stop NOT before they reach the 95m cone. Here’s the problem: The purpose of the ‘fly’ run is to focus on the 25m-65m portion of the repetition, i.e. teach/cue holding top speed and slowing the rate of deceleration that begins roughly one second after reaching top speed (25m). If this type of workout is done during the first few weeks of the season, it becomes the ultimate example of putting the cart before the horse. Because the coach has ignored the First Law, athletes have not developed the appropriate Skill of Acceleration. Therefore, their ability to accelerate is wildly inconsistent and inefficient. They’ll never reach their potential top speed at 25m, so having them try to maintain and develop the Skill of Maximum Velocity before acquiring the Skill of Acceleration is simply impossible. Such a practice is the coaching equivalent of sending a kid to college before they start high school. It’s a recipe for disaster, or, at the very least, a recipe for a mediocre program. A ‘fly 40’ with a 25m buildup is a run of 65m total. Your athletes can’t sprint for 65m, with an appropriate degree of Skill, before they’ve learned how to run properly for 55m. They can’t sprint for 55m before they’ve learned to correctly sprint for 45m. They can’t sprint for 45m before they’ve learned to correctly sprint for 35m. They can’t sprint for 45m before they’ve learned to correctly sprint for 25m. To the educated coach, this is common sense. A student doesn’t have the knowledge base to complete their senior year of college if they never completed their junior year. They don’t have the knowledge base to complete their junior year of college if they never completed their sophomore year. And so on back to the beginning where fundamentals are taught. Generalization before specialization. This is why the Second Law of Speed Development is the ‘short to long’ program. My athletes start out running 20m accelerations. Once they show proficiency at 20m, we go to 30m. Display proficiency and we go to 40m. Now that we’re running reps at distances putting us at top speed, we introduce fly runs using the same principle as with acceleration development. First we do ‘fly 10s’. Once athletes develop top speed proficiency doing a ‘fly 10’, we go to ‘fly 20s’. Once athletes develop top speed proficiency doing a ‘fly 20’, we go to ‘fly 30s’. This is the structure of the ‘short to long’ program and it is the most effective method for teaching and developing the Skill of Sprinting. The Third Law of Speed Development: Speed Work IS the Workout You can’t get fast if you practice running slow just like you can’t get better at chess by playing checkers. So, if the goal of training is to get faster, you have to look at your quality work/high intensity work as the workout. Most training is based on an endurance model which is why most coaches default method of training is distance work and submaximal interval work. In terms of developing speed, submaximal (less than 90% intensity) training is designed to supplement and aid in recovering from full speed training so that you can….. …do more full speed training! So when designing training (especially for true speed/power sports like football and track sprinters) you must focus your intentions on your speed/power workouts and use submaximal training (aka ‘conditioning’) as a training modality whose purpose is to build the qualities which allow your athletes to do a higher volume of high intensity training. The fatal flaw in most coaching/sports programs is that coaches do the exact opposite. They focus on running and increasing the volume of repeat 100s/150s/200s, etc. which only trains athletes to be good at running slow. Great news if you’re training athletes for a 5k, but otherwise not so much. If you really want to develop faster athletes, spend your time addressing the speed, strength and power qualities which serve as the foundation of faster times and not the general training, low intensity work that is *indirectly responsible for getting results.

The Longer Distances and Cross Country

The Longer Distances and Cross Country

As an athlete moves on to the longer races, the aerobic component of training becomes more important. However, speed is a factor even in the longest races. Today's world-class marathoner is also a world-class 10,000-meter runner. For men, that means well under 28:00 for the track race, while for women it means sub-32:00 speed. For an athlete to maintain that speed for an extended distance requires good leg speed. The top male marathoners can run under 4:00 for a mile or under 3:42 for 1500 meters. Though that high-speed component in the short races is not yet vital for women, it will be within a decade as a larger talent pool enters the arena.
    This discussion of speed points out a critical fact: the long distances and the steeplechase are not refuges for the athlete with no talent. The races do allow more progress based on extended hard work, so they are excellent frameworks for the traditional work ethic. However, at the world-class level, no events are "weak:' Through 2006, the world records at 10,000 meters require paces of just over 63 seconds per 400m lap for a man and under 71 seconds per lap for a woman, both maintained for 25 laps. The marathons require paces of 71 and 77 seconds per 400m lap for over 105 laps (though not run on the track) for a man and a woman, respectively.
    More attention is now paid to developing the anaerobic threshold. The idea of very high mileage at a relatively easy pace is discredited as an effective training method for the distances.' As David Martin of the USOC's Elite Athlete Project says, ''This 7:00 a mile stuff for a 100 miles a week isn't necessarily going to hack if." Instead, higher intensity training at lower mileages is more
effective.
    The most effective training appears to depend upon paces based on the athlete's aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, the levels at which the athlete accumulates certain levels of lactic acid:
    •    Aerobic threshold: 2 mmol per liter of lactate
    •    Anaerobic threshold: 4 mmol per liter of lactate

    These thresholds are "breaking points" on the rising curve of lactic acid produced by the body as exercise becomes more strenuous. The aerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete is beginning to "work," having to use more oxygen to maintain the training effort. The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete can no longer take in enough oxygen to fuel the exercise, thus beginning to go into oxygen debt (recovery oxygen) and drawing on the body's reserves to maintain the effort. This discussion is based on Finnish research and practice, but some exercise physiologists question the validity of the thresholds..'
    The most effective training speeds are in the transitional range between those two levels. Although an athlete's potential VO2max has genetic limits, the ability to race at a given level (percentage) of that figure is not so limited. In other words, the VO2max is not the only factor limiting an athlete's potential. As an example, Steve Prefontaine had a VO2max of above 80, compared to about 70 for Frank Shorter, yet both had roughly the same best marks at 5,000 meters (both world class). Shorter had more efficient running technique and was able to run at a higher percentage of his maximum than was Prefontaine.
    Thus, two important aspects can be identified for long distance training: proper running technique and training at more effective levels of effort. The more intensive training sessions that theory recommends make the hard-easy principle even more important.
    The benefit of---and reason for---the hard-easy principle is that the body needs time to recover from a workload. The recovery time that is needed depends on the intensity of the workload. A light run may require only a few hours of recovery. A 10-mile run at close to the anaerobic threshold may require from one to three days of recovery, depending on the athlete's training background.
    With that understood, how to determine the most effective training levels? Although the VO2max and the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds are best determined by treadmill tests in a lab setting, rough measures can be made from the best racing times at longer distances.

    Finnish researchers have suggested that when more scientific testing is not
possible, the thresholds can be estimated from the beats per minute (BPM) of
the maximum heart rate (HRmax, which can also be estimated)." The training
zones are:
    •    V02max training:
    Within 5 BPM of the HRmax
    •    Anaerobic training:
    ./   20 to 30 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
    ./  15 to 25 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
    •    Aerobic training:
    ./    40 to 60 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
   ./    35 to 50 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
    Table 9-1 gives an example based on a maximum heart rate of 200 BPM. The maximum rate varies by age, sex, and fitness.

After the limits are set for each type of training, the athlete can easily find the most effective training speeds for steady runs. By running at varied paces on the track and taking the pulse, the runner can find what speed gives a pulse of 150, 160, and so forth. Those speeds will be the training speeds. The theory suggests the following types of training during the base conditioning period:

    •    VO2max training: one session per week
    ,/    Usually three to five minutes total of fast intervals
    ,/    Long recoveries (10 to 20 minutes)
   ,/    Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed. Note: The heart rate should be maintained at this lower level after a race because it speeds the removal of lactic acid from the muscles .
    •    Anaerobic training: one session per week
   ,/    Usually 12 to 15 minutes of intervals
   ,/    Shorter recoveries (four to five minutes)
    ,/    Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed

    •    Aerobic training: five sessions per week
    ,/    Steady-state running
    ,/    Three days at the upper limit (such as 160 BPM)
    ,/    Two days at the lower limit (such as 140 BPM)

    Note that these training ideas are still experimental. Many gaps still exist in the knowledge base. Understanding training is like putting together a huge puzzle: the edges are formed, with isolated clusters of knowledge in the open middle. Coaching is still far from a hard science. However, all of the training principles in Chapter 3 hold firm in the face of newer scientific knowledge.
Research under the USOC's Elite Athlete Project in the early 1980s found that the best indicators of fitness changes from training by elite male runners were:
    •    Percentage of body fat
    •    Anaerobic threshold
    •    Blood hemoglobin
    •    Serum ferritin and haptoglobin

    As a note on the tests for iron, such as the serum ferritin level, male distance runners were anemic nearly as often as women runners were. The iron level is critical to distance runners because of its role in oxygen transport. Though women runners must be especially careful that a proper iron level is maintained, male runners are also vulnerable to depletion. Tests such as the serum ferritin level show a drop in the iron level much sooner than the blood hemoglobin measure, which may give little useful indication until the problem is beyond quick remedy. Runners should be aware that a program of taking iron supplements should include regular blood tests, if possible, because different types of supplements are absorbed at different rates. In some cases, no more
than 10 percent of the iron supplement may be absorbed by the body.

Cross Country

Cross country means many things to many people. For this discussion, the primary purpose of the cross country season is to build a cardiovascular base for the spring track season. We consider the big meets in May and June to be the most important of the year.
    The cross country season begins after the opening of school, though the first organized practice may be held as soon as early August, depending on the school system's schedule. We begin the program with a "run," not a race. The distance is equal to the racing distance at the end of the season, which (for university competition) is 5 to 6 kilometers for women and 8 to 10 kilometers
for men. The male athletes run their distance at a pace of 6 to 7 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 37 to 43 minutes for 10 km. The women run their distance at a pace of 7 to 8 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 23 to 26 minutes for 5 km. This pace is submaximal, but it should be a comfortable, successful run for the athlete.
    Before the start of the run, each athlete declares a pace. The times are given at the one- and two-mile points to give the runners an idea of how close they are to their paces. If athletes reach a mark in a time much faster than their declared paces, they must stop until their pace times come up on the watch. After the two-mile point, the next time for men is given at four miles, and then
times are recorded at five miles. The athletes are allowed to run the last mile as fast as they wish. When the last mile split is calculated, the athlete's pace for interval training is determined. If the last mile was 4:40, the training pace for intervals will be 70 seconds per 400, as in the case of a runner like Prefontaine. If the last mile was 6:00, the pace will be 90 seconds. The pace is changed as the runner improves during the racing season. The training pace usually will be set at an average of the last three times in the cross country runs.
    The Oregon cross country pattern is a 14-day cycle based upon years of training patterns. Like any other dynamic training program, it undergoes periodic changes and improvements. The terms used in the training schedule have already been described. The heavy use of fartlek and steady-pace runs is evident. The present system was described by Bill Dellinger, Bowerman's
successor at Oregon, coach of four NCAA cross country championship teams and co-coach of Steve Prefontaine (primary coach after Bowerman's retirement), as following the pattern in Table 9-2.

    The athletes need to learn to run on hills as well as on the flat. Their posture should still be relatively upright, as on the track, though the slopes cause some leaning. Runners should try not to let the slopes cause them to lean too much, though. When they run uphill or downhill, they should keep their legs a bit bent at the knee to allow for more play in a joint in case of unexpected changes in the ground. When going uphill, they should try not to lean too far forward, which could result in back strain and "stabbing" at the ground with the feet. When running downhill, they should try to avoid leaning back because hitting a wet spot might cause a rough landing on the wrong part of the anatomy. Cross country is the season for developing a base that will help the runner throughout the year.
    During the cross country season, the training uses more fartlek and steady-pace running than interval training because the primary object is cardiovascular development. Interval training generally is used only one day a week, usually Tuesdays, and it is run at the date pace. The athletes should have a minimum of three weeks of training before they compete in any meets. No more than one meet should be scheduled per week. If the athletes were to race twice a week, they would have a difficult time making any real progress. With such a heavy racing schedule, they would be better off with a bookkeeper than a coach.
    The training schedules are included at the end of this chapter. The training dates can be changed to reflect the local season.

Racing Tactics in Cross Country
Cross country is a sport that allows runners to use a variety of tactical maneuvers. Because the terrain varies, the course turns, rises, and falls, and the weather and the opponents affect the racing conditions, successful runners must consider many factors before the race. Some examples of cross country tactics follow.

    Check the entire course before the race. Ideally, the athletes should see the course before the day of the race so they do not get exhausted by the warm-up. They should learn what dangers and benefits the course has.

    Go for position at the start. In dual meets, this tactic is rarely so important, but in major races, no course is wide enough to allow freedom of movement to slow starters. Some courses turn into narrow trails very soon. Athletes must run fast enough in the first 400m to get into position without risking later oxygen debt. Some long training runs should begin with a fast 400m from a group start, so this skill can be learned.

    Surge to get out of heavy traffic. Sometimes, runners must use a faster pace to get ahead of the crowd. They should be careful that the pace does not overextend them, however.

    Run against the opponents, not the watch. Because of course conditions, even-pace running may not be possible, as it is in road or track races.

    Be ready to take advantage of an opponent's moment of weakness. Some runners slow down at a curve or after reaching the top of a hill. Runners should look for such sudden opportunities to make an effective move.

    Make a move just after turning a corner or crossing the top of a hill. Making sudden gains in position while out of sight can be unnerving to an opponent.
 

    Float up the hills, then surge on the downhill. This tactic takes less energy, and most people slow down as they top the hill.
 

    Be careful not to slow down too much after a surge. The surging runner may fall too far off the pace and be caught by an opponent.
 

    Think of strength rather than speed at the end of the race. An opponent's superior 400m or mile speed means nothing. No runner is starting fresh at this point. The finishing kick comes down to who has more strength and determination, not who has greater speed.

The Steeplechase

The steeplechase is the real test of an athlete. The training for the steeplechase is basically the same as that for a 3,000 or 5,000m runner. The only real difference involves the hurdling activities. Ideally, the athlete will run a steeplechase about once a month, or hopefully no more often than every two weeks until he gets into a situation where he has to race twice as part of a single meet. Otherwise, running the steeplechase too often can cause the steeplechaser to be "flattened out" from giving too much in his practice and early competitive seasons.
    The difference between training for the flat races and for the steeplechase is the hurdle training. Place hurdles and small logs (up to three feet in diameter, lying on their sides) around the track and off-track athletics areas of the campus for the runners to use for informal practice. One principle of training is that every male distance runner does some steeplechase training, whether or not
he ever runs a steeplechase in competition. This practice helps the coach discover potential steeplechasers, some of whom might not be inclined to volunteer for such a tough event. The runners practice jumping over the obstacles or stepping on and then over them while running on their own.
    Some pace work is done over a distance of 200m on the track over the hurdles. This pace work is done with two arrangements of hurdles. In one case, only two hurdles are used, one set at the end of the first straight and the other at the end of the turn as the second straight begins. In the other case, about five hurdles are run, set 15 to 20 meters apart and included in a 200m run. In
both cases, the athlete runs about four intervals while working on his hurdling. He tries to hurdle as a hurdler would. During the early part of the year, the hurdles are set at 30 inches in height; as the training year progresses, the hurdles are raised to the three-foot height of the steeplechase barriers.
    The steeplechasers practice over the water jump and barriers once a week. Except during regular competitions, the water jump does not have any water in the pit. The athletes run in a loop, going over the barrier or water jump perhaps four times. Except for this practice situation, they practice with the regular hurdles. The reason for this is simple: You can hit the regular hurdles and they move. The water-jump barrier does not move at all. The other barriers are over 12 feet long and weigh well over 200 pounds (90 kg). They do not move too freely, either. Finally, if an athlete prefers to step on the barriers rather than hurdle over them, he must work on this regularly. The athlete may place a barrier at the edge of the long-jump pit and practice running down the runway
and stepping onto and going over the barrier and into the sand.

    The steeplechaser should not compete too much in his event for it causes a lot of wear and tear. Also, he should not hurdle too much, for it can be hard on the legs.
    American steeplechasing would be helped greatly if the race were added to the high school competitive schedule. Unfortunately, few athletes are exposed to steeplechasing before college. A short, 2,000m (five-lap) race is an excellent high school event. When the race is longer than a mile, it begins to highlight the experts. This event can provide pre-college experience to many
runners, and it would be one more event for competitors, allowing more participants. The real objective of the entire sport is the joy of competition. The steeplechase training schedules can be found at the end of this chapter.

Steeplechase Racing Tactics
Most distance-running tactics hold true for the steeplechase. However, the hurdles add another dimension to the race: Some runners fall, especially at the first barrier. Athletes should run wide approaching the first hurdle so they have a clear look at where the barrier is. Some runners have run into the barrier, not realizing where it was until the runner ahead of them jumped suddenly. One way to stay safe is to step on the first barrier rather than hurdle it.
    At every barrier, it is safer to move out to the side and have a clear view than to follow closely behind a runner, for two reasons. First, the athlete needs to judge exactly where the barrier is so he can time the clearance properly. Second, if the runner ahead falls while clearing the barrier, the trailing runners may fall over him or be injured while trying to avoid stepping on him.

    The steeplechasers should try to get a straight line for the last three or four steps to the water-jump barrier. After the first lap, their feet will be wet and may slip on the barrier if they hit it at an angle. The runner should stride onto the barrier with the heel down so that their foot rolls across the top, and the toe of the shoe (and some spikes) pushes off from the far side of the barrier,
propelling him across the water. The runner should not try to clear the water completely because it wastes energy. Some athletes hurdle over the barrier rather than step on it. This procedure can be marginally faster, but it may be more stressful on the legs, and the runner may land in deeper water.
    The best way to run the race is to begin cautiously, avoiding getting caught in the crowd or following the early leader's pace, which is often too fast The runner moves into position after four laps, moving into the front three positions, just as suggested for the middle distances. He finishes strongly over the last one or two laps, but he must be especially careful of the barriers on the last lap. Some runners get carried away with the head-to-head competition and hit a barrier. The steeplechase is an event for the more courageous and determined athletes.

The Long Middle Distances: Two Miles to Ten Kilometers

The training principles and patterns for the longer distance races are the same as those given for the shorter, middle-distance runs. The fall training is usually the cross country training described previously. At the end of the cross country season, in late November, the distance runners switch to training schedules that more specifically apply to their racing distances on the track.

    As in other events, follow the hard-easy principle in planning the athletes' training programs. This area can be dangerous if the coach attempts to overwork the athlete. Runners must not be sent beyond their personal tolerance levels in training. The basic cycle used is one day of hard or heavy training followed by one day of light or easy training. However, this pattern is not universe. Most male athletes rarely need to cover more than 70 or 80 miles (50 or 60 miles for females) in the longer training weeks of the winter.
    Coaches and athletes should not assume that speed is less important for distance runners. A finishing sprint is always a potent weapon, and all highly competitive distance runners are swift at shorter distances. Though he had become an Olympic 5,000m runner, in 1958 Bill Dellinger ran an American record of 3:41.5 for 1500m, equivalent to a 3:59 mile. As a world-class marathoner in the early 1970s, Kenny Moore ran a 4:01 mile.
    The tactics of the longer distance runs are essentially the same regardless of the racing distance: find out what the opposition can do, then determine how he or she can be beaten.
    The training schedules are given fully at the end of this chapter. They can be adapted by the athlete for almost any racing distance between 1500m and the marathon because the principles and patterns are the same. Only the paces and the quantities differ.

Training for the Marathon

The marathon is an event for the mature athlete, starting no sooner than their mid-20s. Success at the highest levels requires great talent, just as in the other events. The most influential factors on marathon performance are shown in Table 9-3.

Cross Country Training Schedules

Steeplechase Training Schedules

Distance Training Schedules

CARDIOVASCULAR AND CARDIORESPIRATORY COMPONENTS

Improvement in running performance hinges on many factors. Specifically, running training benefits the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, which should, in turn, lead to an improvement in running performance. However, this improvement can be curtailed by neglecting or abusing the musculoskeletal system through inappropriate training-too much mileage at too
fast a pace. Even intelligent training can exacerbate muscle imbalances and anatomical shortcomings. Incorporating strength training into a holistic plan for performance enhancement makes sense on many levels. A well-designed strength program promotes running efficiency through a better, more effective gait. A well-designed running program following some simple, proven tenets
or best practices improves running economy by improving cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory efficiency.
    This chapter explains the general concept of running training via the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, and how positive anatomical changes can occur as a result of an educated, intelligent approach to training.

Cardiovascular and Cardiorespiratory Systems
    The cardiovascular system is a circulatory blood delivery system involving the heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins and arteries). Put simply, the heart pumps blood. The blood is carried away from the heart by arteries and returned to the heart by veins (figure 2.1).


    The cardiorespiratory system involves the heart and lungs. Air is inhaled by breathing through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and other muscles push the air into the lungs, where the oxygen contained in the air becomes mixed with blood (figure 2.2). Figure 2.3 shows the muscles that work during respiration.


    The interplay between the two systems works when the heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. This blood is mixed with the air (oxygen) that has been inhaled. The oxygenated blood is delivered back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. The heart's arteries then pump the blood, now complete with oxygen-rich red blood cells, to the body's muscles (figure
2.4) to promote movement-in this example, running.


    How can running performance improve as a result of this interplay between the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems? Simply, the more developed your cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems are, the more blood flow your body produces. Greater blood flow means more oxygen-rich red blood cells are available to power your muscles and more plasma is available to aid in creating energy through a process called glycolysis.
    Other factors such as neuromuscular fitness, muscular endurance, strength, and flexibility are involved in improving running performance. Coupled with the strong foundation of well-developed cardiothoracic systems (the heart and lungs are located in the thorax region of the body, hence the term cardiothorax), these other factors will help to produce sustainable improvements in performance. The science described in the preceding paragraphs becomes exercise science, and a useful primer for improving running performance when applied to a training model. The following discussion of training is rooted in the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems.

Performance Training Progression
    Traditional training progressions consist of a well-developed base, or introductory, period consisting of easy runs of gradually increasing duration and strength training consisting of
lighter weights and higher repetitions. Normally this period is followed by a slightly shorter but still significantly lengthy duration of running strength training (threshold training and hills)
and strength training incorporating increasing resistance. The final phase is defined by a brief period of high-intensity (V02max) running coupled with a maintenance period of resistance training and planned rest (taper). The entire training progression ends with a competitive phase of racing, which seems incredibly short given the amount of time spent attaining the fitness to race. This training progression, also known as a training cycle, is then adapted based on its success or failure and race distances to be completed in the future and repeated, incorporating a well-defined rest period at the end of each cycle, for the duration of the runner's performance-based running career.
    Please note that this is by no means the only concept of how running training should be structured. Ideas such as adaptive training and functional training (Gambetta's Athletic Development, Human Kinetics) are successful approaches to running training; however, the nuances of those training philosophies are not outlined in this book. Often, apparent differences in training philosophy boil down to simple semantics. Since training language is not codified, coaches do not always understand and apply terminology the same way. Our goal is to present an overall concept of the training progression in a simple but thorough manner without arguing the merits of different approaches.

Base, or Introductory, Training
    The concept of base, or introductory, training is relatively simple, but the application is slightly more nuanced. Most coaches would agree that the pace of running during this phase is always easy and aerobic (based on the consumption of oxygen), not strenuous and anaerobic (using the oxygen present), and that the volume of training should gradually increase with down, or lesser-volume, weeks used to buffer the increase in volume, aid in recovery, and promote an adaption to a new training load. One systematic approach using a three-week training cycle incorporates four to six days of running training with a weekly increase in volume of 10 percent from week 1 to week 2; week 3 returns to the volume of the first week. For injury prevention, the weekly long run should not be more than 33 percent of the week's total volume. Two or three strength-training sessions emphasizing proper form and movement, not volume of weight, would complement this running training.
    For a runner who is training for a race longer than a 10K, this phase of the training cycle is the lengthiest of a training progression because of the slower (relative to speed and muscle development) adaptations to training made by the cardiothoracic systems. Because relatively slow-paced aerobic runs take longer, they require the repeated inhalation of oxygen, the repetitive pumping of the heart, and the uninterrupted (ideally) flow of blood from the lungs to the heart and from the heart to the muscles. All of these actions aid in capillary development and improved blood flow. Increased capillary development aids both in delivering more blood to muscles and in the removal of waste products from muscles and other tissue that could impede the proper functioning of the muscles. However, these adaptations take time. The development of a distance runner may take a decade or more, while the development of faster-paced running can occur in half the time.
    A training program that ignores or diminishes the importance of the base training component is a training program that ignores the tenets of exercise science. Without an extensive reliance on easy aerobic running, any performance-enhancement training program is destined for failure. A common question is how long the base period should last. This seemingly simple question does not have a simple answer, but the best reply is that the base period needs to last as long as the athlete needs to develop good running fitness and musculoskeletal strength based on his or her subjective interpretation of how easy the daily runs feel, but not so long that the athlete becomes bored or unmotivated. A good guideline for experienced runners who are training for races longer than 10K is six to eight weeks. Experienced runners training for 10K races or shorter distances need four to six weeks. For beginning runners, the base period takes longer, even making up the bulk of their first four to six months of running. Another common question is how fast the athlete should run. Short of getting a lactate threshold or stress test, which normally indicates approximately 70 to 75 percent of maximum heart rate or 70 percent of V02max, pace charts help determine aerobic training paces based on race performances (Daniels' Running Formula, Second Edition, Human Kinetics). They are extremely accurate and offer explanations of how to use the data effectively.
    An emphasis on base, or introductory, training does not mean that other types of training are ignored or diminished in importance. The other types of running training-tempo, lactate, threshold, steady-state, hill, and V02max---are relegated to their specific roles in a well-designed training program. Also, neuromuscular development is needed to allow fast performances to occur.
These other types of training are meant to sharpen and focus the endurance developed during the base, or introductory, phase. However, because these other types of training also strengthen the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, they play an essential role in improving performance.
    The best approach to strength training during this phase is to perform multiple sets of 10 to 12 repetitions of exercises for total-body strength development. Specifically, at this stage of training, functional strength is less important than developing muscular endurance for the whole body. If this is an athlete's first strength-training progression, the proper execution of the exercise becomes paramount. If an athlete is revisiting strength training after a rest period, becoming reacquainted with the physical demands of combining a running and strength-training program should be the goal. Strength training should be performed two or three times per week; however, one day a week should be entirely free of exercise, so the other workouts need to be performed either on running days after the runs or on the other off days from running if following a four- or five-day-a-week running plan.

Threshold Training
    The concept of lactate threshold (LT) often associated with tempo-based running is a conversation point for many exercise physiologists, running coaches, and runners. The science of the concept, the lexicon to describe it, and the appropriate duration and pace of the effort offer endless possibilities for debate and argument. All too often an athlete's successful performance leads to the supposition that his or her interpretation of threshold training (if it is a cornerstone of the program) is the appropriate interpretation and therefore must be copied by the masses. We do not endeavor to make any definitive statements about lactate threshold protocols. We apply the term threshold (please feel free to substitute lactate threshold, anaerobic threshold, lactate turn point, or lactate curve) to describe the type of running that, because of the muscle contractions inherent in faster-paced training, produces a rising blood-lactate concentration that inhibits faster running or lengthier running at the same speed (figure 2.5)-or, less scientifically, a comfortably hard effort that one could sustain for approximately 5 to 6 miles (8 to 10 km) before reaching exhaustion. It is very close to 10K race pace.


    Lactate---not lactic acid---is a fuel that is used by the muscles during prolonged exercise. Lactate released from the muscle is converted in the liver to glucose, which is then used as an energy source. It had been argued for years that lactic acid (chemically not the same compound as lactate, but normally used as a synonym) was the culprit when discussing performance-limiting
chemical by-products caused by intense physical effort. Instead, rather than cause fatigue, lactate can actually help to delay a possible lowering of blood glucose concentration, and ultimately can aid performance.
    Threshold training also aids running performance because it provides a greater stimulus to the cardiothoracic systems than basic aerobic or recovery runs, and it does so without a correspondingly high impact on the musculoskeletal system because of its shorter duration. By running at a comfortably hard effort for 15 to 50 minutes (depending on your goal race and timing
of the effort in your training program), you can accelerate the rate at which your cardiothoracic systems develop. Tempo runs, which are often referred to interchangeably with lactate threshold runs, cruise intervals, and steady-state runs, which are slightly slower than tempos, are types of threshold workouts, just at slightly different paces and durations. Ultimately, the objective of a
lactate-type run, a measurement of 4 mmol of lactate if blood was drawn at points during the run, would be accomplished performing these runs instead of an easy aerobic run, which would produce almost no lactate.
    A good resource on tempo-type training is Jack Daniels' Running Formula (Human Kinetics, 2005). The author recommends paces and durations of effort based on the athlete's current fitness and race distances to be attempted. Although less stressful on the runner's body than V02max efforts and races, threshold runs in any form (lactate threshold, tempo runs, cruise intervals,
repeat miles) require longer periods of recovery than daily aerobic or recovery runs. Most nonelite runners should perform threshold-type runs no more than once a week during this phase of the training progression, and need to treat them as hard efforts. They should be preceded by an easy run plus a set of strides (faster running at 40 to 60 meters [44 to 66 yards]) the day before,
and an easy or easy and long run the following day. Keep in mind that easy running still makes up the majority of this phase of training. The introduction of threshold-type training to the progression usually is the only difference from the introductory phase.
    Strength training at this phase of a training progression is highly important and highly individual. The emphasis should be on countering the athlete's weakness and on functional exercises that directly correlate to running faster. For example, if a female runner lacks arm strength, an emphasis on arm exercises with lower reps (four to six) and higher weight (to exhaustion) would be called for. Also, if she was training for a 5K, functional hamstring strength would be important, so instead of performing hamstring curls, which emphasize only the hamstrings, the dumbbell Romanian deadlift and good morning exercises are more powerful exercises because they involve more of the anatomy (hamstring and glute complex) involved in the running gait. The hamstring curls should be performed in the base phase of training to develop general strength. Two strength-training workouts per week will suffice because of the intensity of the training. The muscle fibers must have a period of rest to repair themselves so they can adapt to an increasing workload.

V02max Training
    Many exercise physiologists consider V02max and V02max training to be the most important components of a comprehensive running program; however, this view has been challenged by some of the younger coaches who are not scientists but have had success in running and coaching. Regardless of bias, V02max-specific workouts are a powerful training tool for improving
running performance---after performing the training leading up to it.
    V02max is the peak rate of oxygen consumed during maximal or exhaustive exercise (see figure 2.5). Various tests involving exercising to exhaustion can be done to determine a V02max score (both a raw number and an adjusted one).
    Once a V02max score is obtained, a runner can develop a training program that incorporates training at heart rate levels that equate to V02max levels. The training efforts, or repetitions, would not necessarily end in exhaustion, although they can, but would reach the heart rate equivalent of the V02max effort for a short period, approximately three to five minutes. The goal of this type of training is multifold. It requires the muscles incorporated to contract at such a fast pace as to be fully engaged, aiding in the neuromuscular component by placing a premium on nervous system coordination of the muscles involved in running at such a fast rate. Most important, it requires the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems to work at peak efficiency to deliver oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and to remove the waste products of the glycolytic (energy-producing) process.
    Training at V02max levels is obviously a powerful training tool because of its intense recruitment of many of the body's systems. It is important to note that a V02max training phase needs to be incorporated at the appropriate time in a training cycle for the runner to fully benefit from its application. Despite some athletes' reporting success by reversing the training progression and
performing V02max workouts at the beginning of a training cycle, the most opportune time to add V02max training to a performance-based training plan is after a lengthy base period of easy aerobic or recovery training and a period of threshold training geared to the specific event to be completed. Rest is an important component of this phase since it aids in adaptation to the intense
stimulus of the V02max workouts. Do not be fooled into thinking that intense workouts and multiple races without rest is an intelligent training plan. It may deliver short-term success, but ultimately will lead to injury or excessive fatigue.
    The strength training performed at this stage should be a set of exercises that are highly functional and specific to the event being contested and the literal strength of the runner. For example, a marathon runner who has a strong core would focus on his or her core with multiple sets of 12 reps. The exercises are equally divided between abdominal exercises and lower back exercises to
ensure balance. The emphasis is on muscular endurance. A 5K runner whose focus is speed would continue with the lower-rep, higher-weight routine of the threshold phase, emphasizing the upper legs, core, and upper torso.

Results of the Training Progression Model
    As in math, each training phase builds on the by-products of the completion of the preceding phase. They are not isolated blocks, but an integrated system. For example, a completed base, or introductory, phase leads to increased capillary development, resulting in more blood volume, musculoskeletal enhancement, and, theoretically, a more efficient gait. Threshold training furthers the performance of the runner by advancing the development of the cardiothoracic systems, increasing the adaptation of the musculoskeletal system through faster muscle contractions, and heightening the body's neurological response to stimulus (faster-paced running). Anaerobic training (using oxygen already present) has little practical application to distance running, and for most non-elite runners does not factor into the training progression.
    When these conditions have been met, the runner can easily begin a short course of high-intensity V02max training. The specifics of pace, duration, and rest are found in many training manuals, and the specific application of this type of training varies by individual. By following the strength-training recommendations for each phase of the running training progression, a runner is
really preparing his or her body for the rigors of a goal race or races.
    The result of following a training program based on the development of the cardiothoracic systems is better performance through an improved "engine" (the heart and lungs) and a stronger "chassis" through strength training. Whether V02max is determined by the exhaustion of the heart first or the muscles first, the development of the cardiothoracic systems will permit the point of exhaustion to be reached (measured in heart rate) at a faster pace and allow a greater distance to be covered. This is a visible way that improvement
in performance can be measured.
 

Acidosis (Lactate) Threshold Training

The acidosis threshold (AT) demarcates the transition between running that is almost purely aerobic and running that includes significant oxygen-independent (anaerobic) metabolism. (All running speeds have an anaerobic contribution, although when running slower than acidosis-threshold pace, that contribution is negligible.) Therefore, the AT represents the fastest speed that can be sustained aerobically. Research has shown that the AT is the best physiological predictor of distance running performance.
    Training the AT increases the speed at which acidosis occurs, enabling athletes to run at a higher percentage of VO2max for a longer time. Increasing the AT pace allows runners to run faster before they fatigue because it allows them to run faster before oxygen-independent metabolism begins to playa significant role. What was once an anaerobic pace becomes high aerobic. Imagine two runners who have similar VO2max values but differ in their AT paces. If Runner A and Runner B both have a VO2max of 60 milliliters of oxygen per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min), but Runner A's AT is 70 percent and Runner B's AT is 80 percent of VO2max, Runner B can sustain a higher intensity and will beat Runner A. Also, a runner with a lower VO2max can perform
similarly to a runner with a higher VO2max if she has a higher AT. If Runner X has a VO2max of 50 ml/kg/min and an AT that is 80 percent of her VO2max and Runner Y has a VO2max of 60 ml/kg/min and an AT that is 67 percent of her VO2max, Runner X will be able to sustain a similar intensity as Runner Y, despite having a lower VO2max (80 percent of 50 = 40 ml/kg/min vs. 67 percent of 60 = 40 ml/kg/min).
    AT workouts are not all-out. They are high-end aerobic. The pace should feel comfortably hard. AT workouts are the most difficult type for athletes to run at the correct speed, especially those runners who are young or inexperienced with these workouts, since these workouts require holding back and not pushing the pace. There's a comfortably hard feeling to the pace that requires practice.
    For competitive runners, AT pace is about 25 to 30 seconds per mile slower than 5K race pace (about 15 seconds per mile slower than 10K race pace) and corresponds to about 85 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate.

Workout #5: AT Run
Objective: To increase the athlete's acidosis threshold.

Description: On a measured and preferably flat cross country course or grass field, athletes run 3 to 6 miles (20 to 40 minutes) at AT pace. This is the most basic of AT workouts, but it is very effective for raising the athlete's acidosis threshold.

Coaching Points:
    ●  It's important to keep the AT pace as steady as possible during these workouts, with little to no fluctuation in pace. The point is to raise the athlete's blood lactate level to it's threshold value (which indicates the onset of acidosis), and then hold it there for the duration of the workout.
    ●  Since it's tempting for athletes to push the pace during these AT workouts, emphasize the purpose of the workout and the importance to remain aerobic.
    ●  To practice the final push to the finish line during races, athletes may pick up the pace (albeit slightly) during the last quarter-mile of the AT run.

Workout #6: Long AT Run

Objective: To increase the acidosis threshold while running farther to prepare for longer races.

Description: Sometimes, it's beneficial to run a bit slower than AT pace to accommodate a longer distance, which comes with it the psychological demand of holding a comfortably hard pace for an extended time. Athletes run 6 to 10 miles (40 to 60 minutes) at 10 to 20 seconds per mile slower than AT pace.

Coaching Point: Athletes should view this workout as a way to increase the length of their runs at near AT pace. Therefore, they should be close to their AT pace for the entire run.

Workout #7: Handicap AT Run

Objective: To increase acidosis-threshold pace during a fun workout in which everyone finishes at the same time.

Description: Athletes run 3 miles at AT pace, with the slowest runner starting first and the fastest runner starting last. After the first runner begins, each subsequent runner begins after the amount of time has elapsed that equals the difference in AT paces over the entire run. For example, if Runners A, B, and C have AT paces of 5:30, 5:45, and 6:10, respectively, Runner C starts first, followed 1 minute and 15 seconds later (25 seconds times 3 miles) by Runner B, and 2 minutes later (40 seconds times 3 miles) by Runner A. If all runners run at their correct AT paces, everyone should cross the finish line together. This workout puts both the faster and slower runners in a unique position---the faster runners get the opportunity to catch the slower runners, and the slower runners get the opportunity to know what it's like to lead and be chased. This workout can be made longer by calculating the correct handicapped time for each runner.

Coaching Point: Don't let the faster runners "chase" the slower runners by running faster than their correct AT paces.

Workout #8: AT Serial Runs

Objective: To make the AT run both physically and psychologically easier while still obtaining the same benefit of continuous running at AT pace.

Description: This workout breaks the continuous AT run into shorter runs with recovery periods. Athletes run 2 to 4 x 10 to 15 minutes (about 2 miles) at AT pace with 3 to 5 minutes rest.

Coaching Point: If athletes have heart rate monitors, AT runs should be run at 85 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate.

Workout #9: AT Intervals

Objective: To make the AT workout both physically and psychologically easier and to increase the distance athletes can run at AT pace, you can design the workout in an interval format.

Description: Athletes run 3 to 6 x 1 mile at AT pace with a one-minute rest or 6 to 8 X 1,000 meters at AT pace with a one-minute rest.

Coaching Points:
    ●  While it is tempting for athletes to run faster when the work periods are shorter, the purpose of this workout is the same as it is with continuous AT runs---to increase the acidosis threshold. Therefore, make sure athletes do not run any faster when doing AT intervals as when they do AT runs. They should still run' at AT pace.
    ●  Each repetition should be run at exactly the same pace, completing all reps within 1 to 2 seconds of each other, assuming you're using the same part of the cross country course for each rep.
    ●  AT intervals are "rhythm" workouts. Encourage athletes to try to find the rhythm within each repetition .
    ●  Athletes should focus on having their feet land directly beneath their center of gravity and "roll" through each step to maintain a solid rhythm.

Workout # 10: AT + Intervals

Objective: To add slightly more stress to the AT intervals as a way to further stimulate changes in AT pace to reach a faster speed.

Description: This version of AT intervals is run slightly faster than AT pace (hence the plus). Athletes run 2 sets of 4 x 1,000 meters (or 800 meters for less talented runners) at 5 to 10 seconds per mile faster than AT pace with 45 seconds rest and 2 minutes rest between sets.

Coaching Point: Make sure athletes don't get carried away with this workout. The pace must be only slightly faster than AT pace. If AT runs and AT intervals feel "comfortably hard," AT + intervals should feel "hard but comfortable"

Workout #11: AT/LSD Combo Run

Objective: To increase the acidosis threshold while learning to combat fatigue in long cross country races.

Description: A twist on the 1970s term, "long slow distance," athletes run medium-long runs with a portion run at AT pace: 10 to 12 miles easy + 2 to 4 miles at AT pace. You can also mix the AT-paced running throughout the workout, such as 3 miles easy + 3 miles at AT pace + 5 miles easy + 3 miles at AT pace.

Coaching Points:
    ●  These workouts are demanding, so it is necessary that athletes run the easy portions easy.
    ●  When running the AT portion at the end of the run, the athletes' heart rates may exceed their normal AT heart rates (85 to 90 percent maximum heart rate) due to the cardiac drift associated with longer runs, especially on hot and humid days. However, athletes should not slow down their AT pace in an attempt to bring the higher heart rate down. Rather, they should focus on maintaining their correct AT paces.