Tuesday, October 11, 2011

The Longer Distances and Cross Country



The Longer Distances and Cross Country

As an athlete moves on to the longer races, the aerobic component of training becomes more important. However, speed is a factor even in the longest races. Today's world-class marathoner is also a world-class 10,000-meter runner. For men, that means well under 28:00 for the track race, while for women it means sub-32:00 speed. For an athlete to maintain that speed for an extended distance requires good leg speed. The top male marathoners can run under 4:00 for a mile or under 3:42 for 1500 meters. Though that high-speed component in the short races is not yet vital for women, it will be within a decade as a larger talent pool enters the arena.
    This discussion of speed points out a critical fact: the long distances and the steeplechase are not refuges for the athlete with no talent. The races do allow more progress based on extended hard work, so they are excellent frameworks for the traditional work ethic. However, at the world-class level, no events are "weak:' Through 2006, the world records at 10,000 meters require paces of just over 63 seconds per 400m lap for a man and under 71 seconds per lap for a woman, both maintained for 25 laps. The marathons require paces of 71 and 77 seconds per 400m lap for over 105 laps (though not run on the track) for a man and a woman, respectively.
    More attention is now paid to developing the anaerobic threshold. The idea of very high mileage at a relatively easy pace is discredited as an effective training method for the distances.' As David Martin of the USOC's Elite Athlete Project says, ''This 7:00 a mile stuff for a 100 miles a week isn't necessarily going to hack if." Instead, higher intensity training at lower mileages is more
effective.
    The most effective training appears to depend upon paces based on the athlete's aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, the levels at which the athlete accumulates certain levels of lactic acid:
    •    Aerobic threshold: 2 mmol per liter of lactate
    •    Anaerobic threshold: 4 mmol per liter of lactate

    These thresholds are "breaking points" on the rising curve of lactic acid produced by the body as exercise becomes more strenuous. The aerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete is beginning to "work," having to use more oxygen to maintain the training effort. The anaerobic threshold is the point at which the athlete can no longer take in enough oxygen to fuel the exercise, thus beginning to go into oxygen debt (recovery oxygen) and drawing on the body's reserves to maintain the effort. This discussion is based on Finnish research and practice, but some exercise physiologists question the validity of the thresholds..'
    The most effective training speeds are in the transitional range between those two levels. Although an athlete's potential VO2max has genetic limits, the ability to race at a given level (percentage) of that figure is not so limited. In other words, the VO2max is not the only factor limiting an athlete's potential. As an example, Steve Prefontaine had a VO2max of above 80, compared to about 70 for Frank Shorter, yet both had roughly the same best marks at 5,000 meters (both world class). Shorter had more efficient running technique and was able to run at a higher percentage of his maximum than was Prefontaine.
    Thus, two important aspects can be identified for long distance training: proper running technique and training at more effective levels of effort. The more intensive training sessions that theory recommends make the hard-easy principle even more important.
    The benefit of---and reason for---the hard-easy principle is that the body needs time to recover from a workload. The recovery time that is needed depends on the intensity of the workload. A light run may require only a few hours of recovery. A 10-mile run at close to the anaerobic threshold may require from one to three days of recovery, depending on the athlete's training background.
    With that understood, how to determine the most effective training levels? Although the VO2max and the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds are best determined by treadmill tests in a lab setting, rough measures can be made from the best racing times at longer distances.
    Finnish researchers have suggested that when more scientific testing is not
possible, the thresholds can be estimated from the beats per minute (BPM) of
the maximum heart rate (HRmax, which can also be estimated)." The training
zones are:
    •    V02max training:
    Within 5 BPM of the HRmax
    •    Anaerobic training:
    ./   20 to 30 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
    ./  15 to 25 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
    •    Aerobic training:
    ./    40 to 60 BPM below HRmax for long-distance runners
   ./    35 to 50 BPM below HRmax for middle-distance runners
    Table 9-1 gives an example based on a maximum heart rate of 200 BPM. The maximum rate varies by age, sex, and fitness.
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After the limits are set for each type of training, the athlete can easily find the most effective training speeds for steady runs. By running at varied paces on the track and taking the pulse, the runner can find what speed gives a pulse of 150, 160, and so forth. Those speeds will be the training speeds. The theory suggests the following types of training during the base conditioning period:
    •    VO2max training: one session per week
    ,/    Usually three to five minutes total of fast intervals
    ,/    Long recoveries (10 to 20 minutes)
   ,/    Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed. Note: The heart rate should be maintained at this lower level after a race because it speeds the removal of lactic acid from the muscles .
    •    Anaerobic training: one session per week
   ,/    Usually 12 to 15 minutes of intervals
   ,/    Shorter recoveries (four to five minutes)
    ,/    Recovery runs at lower aerobic training speed
    •    Aerobic training: five sessions per week
    ,/    Steady-state running
    ,/    Three days at the upper limit (such as 160 BPM)
    ,/    Two days at the lower limit (such as 140 BPM)

    Note that these training ideas are still experimental. Many gaps still exist in the knowledge base. Understanding training is like putting together a huge puzzle: the edges are formed, with isolated clusters of knowledge in the open middle. Coaching is still far from a hard science. However, all of the training principles in Chapter 3 hold firm in the face of newer scientific knowledge.
Research under the USOC's Elite Athlete Project in the early 1980s found that the best indicators of fitness changes from training by elite male runners were:
    •    Percentage of body fat
    •    Anaerobic threshold
    •    Blood hemoglobin
    •    Serum ferritin and haptoglobin

    As a note on the tests for iron, such as the serum ferritin level, male distance runners were anemic nearly as often as women runners were. The iron level is critical to distance runners because of its role in oxygen transport. Though women runners must be especially careful that a proper iron level is maintained, male runners are also vulnerable to depletion. Tests such as the serum ferritin level show a drop in the iron level much sooner than the blood hemoglobin measure, which may give little useful indication until the problem is beyond quick remedy. Runners should be aware that a program of taking iron supplements should include regular blood tests, if possible, because different types of supplements are absorbed at different rates. In some cases, no more
than 10 percent of the iron supplement may be absorbed by the body.

Cross Country
Cross country means many things to many people. For this discussion, the primary purpose of the cross country season is to build a cardiovascular base for the spring track season. We consider the big meets in May and June to be the most important of the year.
    The cross country season begins after the opening of school, though the first organized practice may be held as soon as early August, depending on the school system's schedule. We begin the program with a "run," not a race. The distance is equal to the racing distance at the end of the season, which (for university competition) is 5 to 6 kilometers for women and 8 to 10 kilometers
for men. The male athletes run their distance at a pace of 6 to 7 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 37 to 43 minutes for 10 km. The women run their distance at a pace of 7 to 8 minutes per mile, aiming for a time of 23 to 26 minutes for 5 km. This pace is submaximal, but it should be a comfortable, successful run for the athlete.
    Before the start of the run, each athlete declares a pace. The times are given at the one- and two-mile points to give the runners an idea of how close they are to their paces. If athletes reach a mark in a time much faster than their declared paces, they must stop until their pace times come up on the watch. After the two-mile point, the next time for men is given at four miles, and then
times are recorded at five miles. The athletes are allowed to run the last mile as fast as they wish. When the last mile split is calculated, the athlete's pace for interval training is determined. If the last mile was 4:40, the training pace for intervals will be 70 seconds per 400, as in the case of a runner like Prefontaine. If the last mile was 6:00, the pace will be 90 seconds. The pace is changed as the runner improves during the racing season. The training pace usually will be set at an average of the last three times in the cross country runs.
    The Oregon cross country pattern is a 14-day cycle based upon years of training patterns. Like any other dynamic training program, it undergoes periodic changes and improvements. The terms used in the training schedule have already been described. The heavy use of fartlek and steady-pace runs is evident. The present system was described by Bill Dellinger, Bowerman's
successor at Oregon, coach of four NCAA cross country championship teams and co-coach of Steve Prefontaine (primary coach after Bowerman's retirement), as following the pattern in Table 9-2.
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    The athletes need to learn to run on hills as well as on the flat. Their posture should still be relatively upright, as on the track, though the slopes cause some leaning. Runners should try not to let the slopes cause them to lean too much, though. When they run uphill or downhill, they should keep their legs a bit bent at the knee to allow for more play in a joint in case of unexpected changes in the ground. When going uphill, they should try not to lean too far forward, which could result in back strain and "stabbing" at the ground with the feet. When running downhill, they should try to avoid leaning back because hitting a wet spot might cause a rough landing on the wrong part of the anatomy. Cross country is the season for developing a base that will help the runner throughout the year.
    During the cross country season, the training uses more fartlek and steady-pace running than interval training because the primary object is cardiovascular development. Interval training generally is used only one day a week, usually Tuesdays, and it is run at the date pace. The athletes should have a minimum of three weeks of training before they compete in any meets. No more than one meet should be scheduled per week. If the athletes were to race twice a week, they would have a difficult time making any real progress. With such a heavy racing schedule, they would be better off with a bookkeeper than a coach.
    The training schedules are included at the end of this chapter. The training dates can be changed to reflect the local season.

Racing Tactics in Cross Country
Cross country is a sport that allows runners to use a variety of tactical maneuvers. Because the terrain varies, the course turns, rises, and falls, and the weather and the opponents affect the racing conditions, successful runners must consider many factors before the race. Some examples of cross country tactics follow.

    Check the entire course before the race. Ideally, the athletes should see the course before the day of the race so they do not get exhausted by the warm-up. They should learn what dangers and benefits the course has.

    Go for position at the start. In dual meets, this tactic is rarely so important, but in major races, no course is wide enough to allow freedom of movement to slow starters. Some courses turn into narrow trails very soon. Athletes must run fast enough in the first 400m to get into position without risking later oxygen debt. Some long training runs should begin with a fast 400m from a group start, so this skill can be learned.

    Surge to get out of heavy traffic. Sometimes, runners must use a faster pace to get ahead of the crowd. They should be careful that the pace does not overextend them, however.

    Run against the opponents, not the watch. Because of course conditions, even-pace running may not be possible, as it is in road or track races.

    Be ready to take advantage of an opponent's moment of weakness. Some runners slow down at a curve or after reaching the top of a hill. Runners should look for such sudden opportunities to make an effective move.

    Make a move just after turning a corner or crossing the top of a hill. Making sudden gains in position while out of sight can be unnerving to an opponent.
 
    Float up the hills, then surge on the downhill. This tactic takes less energy, and most people slow down as they top the hill.
 
    Be careful not to slow down too much after a surge. The surging runner may fall too far off the pace and be caught by an opponent.
 
    Think of strength rather than speed at the end of the race. An opponent's superior 400m or mile speed means nothing. No runner is starting fresh at this point. The finishing kick comes down to who has more strength and determination, not who has greater speed.

The Steeplechase
The steeplechase is the real test of an athlete. The training for the steeplechase is basically the same as that for a 3,000 or 5,000m runner. The only real difference involves the hurdling activities. Ideally, the athlete will run a steeplechase about once a month, or hopefully no more often than every two weeks until he gets into a situation where he has to race twice as part of a single meet. Otherwise, running the steeplechase too often can cause the steeplechaser to be "flattened out" from giving too much in his practice and early competitive seasons.
    The difference between training for the flat races and for the steeplechase is the hurdle training. Place hurdles and small logs (up to three feet in diameter, lying on their sides) around the track and off-track athletics areas of the campus for the runners to use for informal practice. One principle of training is that every male distance runner does some steeplechase training, whether or not
he ever runs a steeplechase in competition. This practice helps the coach discover potential steeplechasers, some of whom might not be inclined to volunteer for such a tough event. The runners practice jumping over the obstacles or stepping on and then over them while running on their own.
    Some pace work is done over a distance of 200m on the track over the hurdles. This pace work is done with two arrangements of hurdles. In one case, only two hurdles are used, one set at the end of the first straight and the other at the end of the turn as the second straight begins. In the other case, about five hurdles are run, set 15 to 20 meters apart and included in a 200m run. In
both cases, the athlete runs about four intervals while working on his hurdling. He tries to hurdle as a hurdler would. During the early part of the year, the hurdles are set at 30 inches in height; as the training year progresses, the hurdles are raised to the three-foot height of the steeplechase barriers.
    The steeplechasers practice over the water jump and barriers once a week. Except during regular competitions, the water jump does not have any water in the pit. The athletes run in a loop, going over the barrier or water jump perhaps four times. Except for this practice situation, they practice with the regular hurdles. The reason for this is simple: You can hit the regular hurdles and they move. The water-jump barrier does not move at all. The other barriers are over 12 feet long and weigh well over 200 pounds (90 kg). They do not move too freely, either. Finally, if an athlete prefers to step on the barriers rather than hurdle over them, he must work on this regularly. The athlete may place a barrier at the edge of the long-jump pit and practice running down the runway
and stepping onto and going over the barrier and into the sand.
    The steeplechaser should not compete too much in his event for it causes a lot of wear and tear. Also, he should not hurdle too much, for it can be hard on the legs.
    American steeplechasing would be helped greatly if the race were added to the high school competitive schedule. Unfortunately, few athletes are exposed to steeplechasing before college. A short, 2,000m (five-lap) race is an excellent high school event. When the race is longer than a mile, it begins to highlight the experts. This event can provide pre-college experience to many
runners, and it would be one more event for competitors, allowing more participants. The real objective of the entire sport is the joy of competition. The steeplechase training schedules can be found at the end of this chapter.

Steeplechase Racing Tactics
Most distance-running tactics hold true for the steeplechase. However, the hurdles add another dimension to the race: Some runners fall, especially at the first barrier. Athletes should run wide approaching the first hurdle so they have a clear look at where the barrier is. Some runners have run into the barrier, not realizing where it was until the runner ahead of them jumped suddenly. One way to stay safe is to step on the first barrier rather than hurdle it.
    At every barrier, it is safer to move out to the side and have a clear view than to follow closely behind a runner, for two reasons. First, the athlete needs to judge exactly where the barrier is so he can time the clearance properly. Second, if the runner ahead falls while clearing the barrier, the trailing runners may fall over him or be injured while trying to avoid stepping on him.
    The steeplechasers should try to get a straight line for the last three or four steps to the water-jump barrier. After the first lap, their feet will be wet and may slip on the barrier if they hit it at an angle. The runner should stride onto the barrier with the heel down so that their foot rolls across the top, and the toe of the shoe (and some spikes) pushes off from the far side of the barrier,
propelling him across the water. The runner should not try to clear the water completely because it wastes energy. Some athletes hurdle over the barrier rather than step on it. This procedure can be marginally faster, but it may be more stressful on the legs, and the runner may land in deeper water.
    The best way to run the race is to begin cautiously, avoiding getting caught in the crowd or following the early leader's pace, which is often too fast The runner moves into position after four laps, moving into the front three positions, just as suggested for the middle distances. He finishes strongly over the last one or two laps, but he must be especially careful of the barriers on the last lap. Some runners get carried away with the head-to-head competition and hit a barrier. The steeplechase is an event for the more courageous and determined athletes.

The Long Middle Distances: Two Miles to Ten Kilometers
The training principles and patterns for the longer distance races are the same as those given for the shorter, middle-distance runs. The fall training is usually the cross country training described previously. At the end of the cross country season, in late November, the distance runners switch to training schedules that more specifically apply to their racing distances on the track.
    As in other events, follow the hard-easy principle in planning the athletes' training programs. This area can be dangerous if the coach attempts to overwork the athlete. Runners must not be sent beyond their personal tolerance levels in training. The basic cycle used is one day of hard or heavy training followed by one day of light or easy training. However, this pattern is not universe. Most male athletes rarely need to cover more than 70 or 80 miles (50 or 60 miles for females) in the longer training weeks of the winter.
    Coaches and athletes should not assume that speed is less important for distance runners. A finishing sprint is always a potent weapon, and all highly competitive distance runners are swift at shorter distances. Though he had become an Olympic 5,000m runner, in 1958 Bill Dellinger ran an American record of 3:41.5 for 1500m, equivalent to a 3:59 mile. As a world-class marathoner in the early 1970s, Kenny Moore ran a 4:01 mile.
    The tactics of the longer distance runs are essentially the same regardless of the racing distance: find out what the opposition can do, then determine how he or she can be beaten.
    The training schedules are given fully at the end of this chapter. They can be adapted by the athlete for almost any racing distance between 1500m and the marathon because the principles and patterns are the same. Only the paces and the quantities differ.

Training for the Marathon
The marathon is an event for the mature athlete, starting no sooner than their mid-20s. Success at the highest levels requires great talent, just as in the other events. The most influential factors on marathon performance are shown in Table 9-3.
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Cross Country Training Schedules
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Steeplechase Training Schedules
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Distance Training Schedules
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Sunday, October 9, 2011

CARDIOVASCULAR AND CARDIORESPIRATORY COMPONENTS

Improvement in running performance hinges on many factors. Specifically, running training benefits the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, which should, in turn, lead to an improvement in running performance. However, this improvement can be curtailed by neglecting or abusing the musculoskeletal system through inappropriate training-too much mileage at too
fast a pace. Even intelligent training can exacerbate muscle imbalances and anatomical shortcomings. Incorporating strength training into a holistic plan for performance enhancement makes sense on many levels. A well-designed strength program promotes running efficiency through a better, more effective gait. A well-designed running program following some simple, proven tenets
or best practices improves running economy by improving cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory efficiency.
    This chapter explains the general concept of running training via the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, and how positive anatomical changes can occur as a result of an educated, intelligent approach to training.

Cardiovascular and Cardiorespiratory Systems
    The cardiovascular system is a circulatory blood delivery system involving the heart, blood, and blood vessels (veins and arteries). Put simply, the heart pumps blood. The blood is carried away from the heart by arteries and returned to the heart by veins (figure 2.1).


    The cardiorespiratory system involves the heart and lungs. Air is inhaled by breathing through the mouth and nose. The diaphragm and other muscles push the air into the lungs, where the oxygen contained in the air becomes mixed with blood (figure 2.2). Figure 2.3 shows the muscles that work during respiration.


    The interplay between the two systems works when the heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. This blood is mixed with the air (oxygen) that has been inhaled. The oxygenated blood is delivered back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. The heart's arteries then pump the blood, now complete with oxygen-rich red blood cells, to the body's muscles (figure
2.4) to promote movement-in this example, running.


    How can running performance improve as a result of this interplay between the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems? Simply, the more developed your cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems are, the more blood flow your body produces. Greater blood flow means more oxygen-rich red blood cells are available to power your muscles and more plasma is available to aid in creating energy through a process called glycolysis.
    Other factors such as neuromuscular fitness, muscular endurance, strength, and flexibility are involved in improving running performance. Coupled with the strong foundation of well-developed cardiothoracic systems (the heart and lungs are located in the thorax region of the body, hence the term cardiothorax), these other factors will help to produce sustainable improvements in performance. The science described in the preceding paragraphs becomes exercise science, and a useful primer for improving running performance when applied to a training model. The following discussion of training is rooted in the anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems.

Performance Training Progression
    Traditional training progressions consist of a well-developed base, or introductory, period consisting of easy runs of gradually increasing duration and strength training consisting of
lighter weights and higher repetitions. Normally this period is followed by a slightly shorter but still significantly lengthy duration of running strength training (threshold training and hills)
and strength training incorporating increasing resistance. The final phase is defined by a brief period of high-intensity (V02max) running coupled with a maintenance period of resistance training and planned rest (taper). The entire training progression ends with a competitive phase of racing, which seems incredibly short given the amount of time spent attaining the fitness to race. This training progression, also known as a training cycle, is then adapted based on its success or failure and race distances to be completed in the future and repeated, incorporating a well-defined rest period at the end of each cycle, for the duration of the runner's performance-based running career.
    Please note that this is by no means the only concept of how running training should be structured. Ideas such as adaptive training and functional training (Gambetta's Athletic Development, Human Kinetics) are successful approaches to running training; however, the nuances of those training philosophies are not outlined in this book. Often, apparent differences in training philosophy boil down to simple semantics. Since training language is not codified, coaches do not always understand and apply terminology the same way. Our goal is to present an overall concept of the training progression in a simple but thorough manner without arguing the merits of different approaches.

Base, or Introductory, Training
    The concept of base, or introductory, training is relatively simple, but the application is slightly more nuanced. Most coaches would agree that the pace of running during this phase is always easy and aerobic (based on the consumption of oxygen), not strenuous and anaerobic (using the oxygen present), and that the volume of training should gradually increase with down, or lesser-volume, weeks used to buffer the increase in volume, aid in recovery, and promote an adaption to a new training load. One systematic approach using a three-week training cycle incorporates four to six days of running training with a weekly increase in volume of 10 percent from week 1 to week 2; week 3 returns to the volume of the first week. For injury prevention, the weekly long run should not be more than 33 percent of the week's total volume. Two or three strength-training sessions emphasizing proper form and movement, not volume of weight, would complement this running training.
    For a runner who is training for a race longer than a 10K, this phase of the training cycle is the lengthiest of a training progression because of the slower (relative to speed and muscle development) adaptations to training made by the cardiothoracic systems. Because relatively slow-paced aerobic runs take longer, they require the repeated inhalation of oxygen, the repetitive pumping of the heart, and the uninterrupted (ideally) flow of blood from the lungs to the heart and from the heart to the muscles. All of these actions aid in capillary development and improved blood flow. Increased capillary development aids both in delivering more blood to muscles and in the removal of waste products from muscles and other tissue that could impede the proper functioning of the muscles. However, these adaptations take time. The development of a distance runner may take a decade or more, while the development of faster-paced running can occur in half the time.
    A training program that ignores or diminishes the importance of the base training component is a training program that ignores the tenets of exercise science. Without an extensive reliance on easy aerobic running, any performance-enhancement training program is destined for failure. A common question is how long the base period should last. This seemingly simple question does not have a simple answer, but the best reply is that the base period needs to last as long as the athlete needs to develop good running fitness and musculoskeletal strength based on his or her subjective interpretation of how easy the daily runs feel, but not so long that the athlete becomes bored or unmotivated. A good guideline for experienced runners who are training for races longer than 10K is six to eight weeks. Experienced runners training for 10K races or shorter distances need four to six weeks. For beginning runners, the base period takes longer, even making up the bulk of their first four to six months of running. Another common question is how fast the athlete should run. Short of getting a lactate threshold or stress test, which normally indicates approximately 70 to 75 percent of maximum heart rate or 70 percent of V02max, pace charts help determine aerobic training paces based on race performances (Daniels' Running Formula, Second Edition, Human Kinetics). They are extremely accurate and offer explanations of how to use the data effectively.
    An emphasis on base, or introductory, training does not mean that other types of training are ignored or diminished in importance. The other types of running training-tempo, lactate, threshold, steady-state, hill, and V02max---are relegated to their specific roles in a well-designed training program. Also, neuromuscular development is needed to allow fast performances to occur.
These other types of training are meant to sharpen and focus the endurance developed during the base, or introductory, phase. However, because these other types of training also strengthen the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems, they play an essential role in improving performance.
    The best approach to strength training during this phase is to perform multiple sets of 10 to 12 repetitions of exercises for total-body strength development. Specifically, at this stage of training, functional strength is less important than developing muscular endurance for the whole body. If this is an athlete's first strength-training progression, the proper execution of the exercise becomes paramount. If an athlete is revisiting strength training after a rest period, becoming reacquainted with the physical demands of combining a running and strength-training program should be the goal. Strength training should be performed two or three times per week; however, one day a week should be entirely free of exercise, so the other workouts need to be performed either on running days after the runs or on the other off days from running if following a four- or five-day-a-week running plan.

Threshold Training
    The concept of lactate threshold (LT) often associated with tempo-based running is a conversation point for many exercise physiologists, running coaches, and runners. The science of the concept, the lexicon to describe it, and the appropriate duration and pace of the effort offer endless possibilities for debate and argument. All too often an athlete's successful performance leads to the supposition that his or her interpretation of threshold training (if it is a cornerstone of the program) is the appropriate interpretation and therefore must be copied by the masses. We do not endeavor to make any definitive statements about lactate threshold protocols. We apply the term threshold (please feel free to substitute lactate threshold, anaerobic threshold, lactate turn point, or lactate curve) to describe the type of running that, because of the muscle contractions inherent in faster-paced training, produces a rising blood-lactate concentration that inhibits faster running or lengthier running at the same speed (figure 2.5)-or, less scientifically, a comfortably hard effort that one could sustain for approximately 5 to 6 miles (8 to 10 km) before reaching exhaustion. It is very close to 10K race pace.


    Lactate---not lactic acid---is a fuel that is used by the muscles during prolonged exercise. Lactate released from the muscle is converted in the liver to glucose, which is then used as an energy source. It had been argued for years that lactic acid (chemically not the same compound as lactate, but normally used as a synonym) was the culprit when discussing performance-limiting
chemical by-products caused by intense physical effort. Instead, rather than cause fatigue, lactate can actually help to delay a possible lowering of blood glucose concentration, and ultimately can aid performance.
    Threshold training also aids running performance because it provides a greater stimulus to the cardiothoracic systems than basic aerobic or recovery runs, and it does so without a correspondingly high impact on the musculoskeletal system because of its shorter duration. By running at a comfortably hard effort for 15 to 50 minutes (depending on your goal race and timing
of the effort in your training program), you can accelerate the rate at which your cardiothoracic systems develop. Tempo runs, which are often referred to interchangeably with lactate threshold runs, cruise intervals, and steady-state runs, which are slightly slower than tempos, are types of threshold workouts, just at slightly different paces and durations. Ultimately, the objective of a
lactate-type run, a measurement of 4 mmol of lactate if blood was drawn at points during the run, would be accomplished performing these runs instead of an easy aerobic run, which would produce almost no lactate.
    A good resource on tempo-type training is Jack Daniels' Running Formula (Human Kinetics, 2005). The author recommends paces and durations of effort based on the athlete's current fitness and race distances to be attempted. Although less stressful on the runner's body than V02max efforts and races, threshold runs in any form (lactate threshold, tempo runs, cruise intervals,
repeat miles) require longer periods of recovery than daily aerobic or recovery runs. Most nonelite runners should perform threshold-type runs no more than once a week during this phase of the training progression, and need to treat them as hard efforts. They should be preceded by an easy run plus a set of strides (faster running at 40 to 60 meters [44 to 66 yards]) the day before,
and an easy or easy and long run the following day. Keep in mind that easy running still makes up the majority of this phase of training. The introduction of threshold-type training to the progression usually is the only difference from the introductory phase.
    Strength training at this phase of a training progression is highly important and highly individual. The emphasis should be on countering the athlete's weakness and on functional exercises that directly correlate to running faster. For example, if a female runner lacks arm strength, an emphasis on arm exercises with lower reps (four to six) and higher weight (to exhaustion) would be called for. Also, if she was training for a 5K, functional hamstring strength would be important, so instead of performing hamstring curls, which emphasize only the hamstrings, the dumbbell Romanian deadlift and good morning exercises are more powerful exercises because they involve more of the anatomy (hamstring and glute complex) involved in the running gait. The hamstring curls should be performed in the base phase of training to develop general strength. Two strength-training workouts per week will suffice because of the intensity of the training. The muscle fibers must have a period of rest to repair themselves so they can adapt to an increasing workload.

V02max Training
    Many exercise physiologists consider V02max and V02max training to be the most important components of a comprehensive running program; however, this view has been challenged by some of the younger coaches who are not scientists but have had success in running and coaching. Regardless of bias, V02max-specific workouts are a powerful training tool for improving
running performance---after performing the training leading up to it.
    V02max is the peak rate of oxygen consumed during maximal or exhaustive exercise (see figure 2.5). Various tests involving exercising to exhaustion can be done to determine a V02max score (both a raw number and an adjusted one).
    Once a V02max score is obtained, a runner can develop a training program that incorporates training at heart rate levels that equate to V02max levels. The training efforts, or repetitions, would not necessarily end in exhaustion, although they can, but would reach the heart rate equivalent of the V02max effort for a short period, approximately three to five minutes. The goal of this type of training is multifold. It requires the muscles incorporated to contract at such a fast pace as to be fully engaged, aiding in the neuromuscular component by placing a premium on nervous system coordination of the muscles involved in running at such a fast rate. Most important, it requires the cardiovascular and cardiorespiratory systems to work at peak efficiency to deliver oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and to remove the waste products of the glycolytic (energy-producing) process.
    Training at V02max levels is obviously a powerful training tool because of its intense recruitment of many of the body's systems. It is important to note that a V02max training phase needs to be incorporated at the appropriate time in a training cycle for the runner to fully benefit from its application. Despite some athletes' reporting success by reversing the training progression and
performing V02max workouts at the beginning of a training cycle, the most opportune time to add V02max training to a performance-based training plan is after a lengthy base period of easy aerobic or recovery training and a period of threshold training geared to the specific event to be completed. Rest is an important component of this phase since it aids in adaptation to the intense
stimulus of the V02max workouts. Do not be fooled into thinking that intense workouts and multiple races without rest is an intelligent training plan. It may deliver short-term success, but ultimately will lead to injury or excessive fatigue.
    The strength training performed at this stage should be a set of exercises that are highly functional and specific to the event being contested and the literal strength of the runner. For example, a marathon runner who has a strong core would focus on his or her core with multiple sets of 12 reps. The exercises are equally divided between abdominal exercises and lower back exercises to
ensure balance. The emphasis is on muscular endurance. A 5K runner whose focus is speed would continue with the lower-rep, higher-weight routine of the threshold phase, emphasizing the upper legs, core, and upper torso.

Results of the Training Progression Model
    As in math, each training phase builds on the by-products of the completion of the preceding phase. They are not isolated blocks, but an integrated system. For example, a completed base, or introductory, phase leads to increased capillary development, resulting in more blood volume, musculoskeletal enhancement, and, theoretically, a more efficient gait. Threshold training furthers the performance of the runner by advancing the development of the cardiothoracic systems, increasing the adaptation of the musculoskeletal system through faster muscle contractions, and heightening the body's neurological response to stimulus (faster-paced running). Anaerobic training (using oxygen already present) has little practical application to distance running, and for most non-elite runners does not factor into the training progression.
    When these conditions have been met, the runner can easily begin a short course of high-intensity V02max training. The specifics of pace, duration, and rest are found in many training manuals, and the specific application of this type of training varies by individual. By following the strength-training recommendations for each phase of the running training progression, a runner is
really preparing his or her body for the rigors of a goal race or races.
    The result of following a training program based on the development of the cardiothoracic systems is better performance through an improved "engine" (the heart and lungs) and a stronger "chassis" through strength training. Whether V02max is determined by the exhaustion of the heart first or the muscles first, the development of the cardiothoracic systems will permit the point of exhaustion to be reached (measured in heart rate) at a faster pace and allow a greater distance to be covered. This is a visible way that improvement
in performance can be measured.
 

Acidosis (Lactate) Threshold Training

The acidosis threshold (AT) demarcates the transition between running that is almost purely aerobic and running that includes significant oxygen-independent (anaerobic) metabolism. (All running speeds have an anaerobic contribution, although when running slower than acidosis-threshold pace, that contribution is negligible.) Therefore, the AT represents the fastest speed that can be sustained aerobically. Research has shown that the AT is the best physiological predictor of distance running performance.
    Training the AT increases the speed at which acidosis occurs, enabling athletes to run at a higher percentage of VO2max for a longer time. Increasing the AT pace allows runners to run faster before they fatigue because it allows them to run faster before oxygen-independent metabolism begins to playa significant role. What was once an anaerobic pace becomes high aerobic. Imagine two runners who have similar VO2max values but differ in their AT paces. If Runner A and Runner B both have a VO2max of 60 milliliters of oxygen per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min), but Runner A's AT is 70 percent and Runner B's AT is 80 percent of VO2max, Runner B can sustain a higher intensity and will beat Runner A. Also, a runner with a lower VO2max can perform
similarly to a runner with a higher VO2max if she has a higher AT. If Runner X has a VO2max of 50 ml/kg/min and an AT that is 80 percent of her VO2max and Runner Y has a VO2max of 60 ml/kg/min and an AT that is 67 percent of her VO2max, Runner X will be able to sustain a similar intensity as Runner Y, despite having a lower VO2max (80 percent of 50 = 40 ml/kg/min vs. 67 percent of 60 = 40 ml/kg/min).
    AT workouts are not all-out. They are high-end aerobic. The pace should feel comfortably hard. AT workouts are the most difficult type for athletes to run at the correct speed, especially those runners who are young or inexperienced with these workouts, since these workouts require holding back and not pushing the pace. There's a comfortably hard feeling to the pace that requires practice.
    For competitive runners, AT pace is about 25 to 30 seconds per mile slower than 5K race pace (about 15 seconds per mile slower than 10K race pace) and corresponds to about 85 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate.

Workout #5: AT Run
Objective: To increase the athlete's acidosis threshold.

Description: On a measured and preferably flat cross country course or grass field, athletes run 3 to 6 miles (20 to 40 minutes) at AT pace. This is the most basic of AT workouts, but it is very effective for raising the athlete's acidosis threshold.

Coaching Points:
    ●  It's important to keep the AT pace as steady as possible during these workouts, with little to no fluctuation in pace. The point is to raise the athlete's blood lactate level to it's threshold value (which indicates the onset of acidosis), and then hold it there for the duration of the workout.
    ●  Since it's tempting for athletes to push the pace during these AT workouts, emphasize the purpose of the workout and the importance to remain aerobic.
    ●  To practice the final push to the finish line during races, athletes may pick up the pace (albeit slightly) during the last quarter-mile of the AT run.

Workout #6: Long AT Run

Objective: To increase the acidosis threshold while running farther to prepare for longer races.

Description: Sometimes, it's beneficial to run a bit slower than AT pace to accommodate a longer distance, which comes with it the psychological demand of holding a comfortably hard pace for an extended time. Athletes run 6 to 10 miles (40 to 60 minutes) at 10 to 20 seconds per mile slower than AT pace.

Coaching Point: Athletes should view this workout as a way to increase the length of their runs at near AT pace. Therefore, they should be close to their AT pace for the entire run.

Workout #7: Handicap AT Run

Objective: To increase acidosis-threshold pace during a fun workout in which everyone finishes at the same time.

Description: Athletes run 3 miles at AT pace, with the slowest runner starting first and the fastest runner starting last. After the first runner begins, each subsequent runner begins after the amount of time has elapsed that equals the difference in AT paces over the entire run. For example, if Runners A, B, and C have AT paces of 5:30, 5:45, and 6:10, respectively, Runner C starts first, followed 1 minute and 15 seconds later (25 seconds times 3 miles) by Runner B, and 2 minutes later (40 seconds times 3 miles) by Runner A. If all runners run at their correct AT paces, everyone should cross the finish line together. This workout puts both the faster and slower runners in a unique position---the faster runners get the opportunity to catch the slower runners, and the slower runners get the opportunity to know what it's like to lead and be chased. This workout can be made longer by calculating the correct handicapped time for each runner.

Coaching Point: Don't let the faster runners "chase" the slower runners by running faster than their correct AT paces.

Workout #8: AT Serial Runs

Objective: To make the AT run both physically and psychologically easier while still obtaining the same benefit of continuous running at AT pace.

Description: This workout breaks the continuous AT run into shorter runs with recovery periods. Athletes run 2 to 4 x 10 to 15 minutes (about 2 miles) at AT pace with 3 to 5 minutes rest.

Coaching Point: If athletes have heart rate monitors, AT runs should be run at 85 to 90 percent of maximum heart rate.

Workout #9: AT Intervals

Objective: To make the AT workout both physically and psychologically easier and to increase the distance athletes can run at AT pace, you can design the workout in an interval format.

Description: Athletes run 3 to 6 x 1 mile at AT pace with a one-minute rest or 6 to 8 X 1,000 meters at AT pace with a one-minute rest.

Coaching Points:
    ●  While it is tempting for athletes to run faster when the work periods are shorter, the purpose of this workout is the same as it is with continuous AT runs---to increase the acidosis threshold. Therefore, make sure athletes do not run any faster when doing AT intervals as when they do AT runs. They should still run' at AT pace.
    ●  Each repetition should be run at exactly the same pace, completing all reps within 1 to 2 seconds of each other, assuming you're using the same part of the cross country course for each rep.
    ●  AT intervals are "rhythm" workouts. Encourage athletes to try to find the rhythm within each repetition .
    ●  Athletes should focus on having their feet land directly beneath their center of gravity and "roll" through each step to maintain a solid rhythm.

Workout # 10: AT + Intervals

Objective: To add slightly more stress to the AT intervals as a way to further stimulate changes in AT pace to reach a faster speed.

Description: This version of AT intervals is run slightly faster than AT pace (hence the plus). Athletes run 2 sets of 4 x 1,000 meters (or 800 meters for less talented runners) at 5 to 10 seconds per mile faster than AT pace with 45 seconds rest and 2 minutes rest between sets.

Coaching Point: Make sure athletes don't get carried away with this workout. The pace must be only slightly faster than AT pace. If AT runs and AT intervals feel "comfortably hard," AT + intervals should feel "hard but comfortable"

Workout #11: AT/LSD Combo Run

Objective: To increase the acidosis threshold while learning to combat fatigue in long cross country races.

Description: A twist on the 1970s term, "long slow distance," athletes run medium-long runs with a portion run at AT pace: 10 to 12 miles easy + 2 to 4 miles at AT pace. You can also mix the AT-paced running throughout the workout, such as 3 miles easy + 3 miles at AT pace + 5 miles easy + 3 miles at AT pace.

Coaching Points:
    ●  These workouts are demanding, so it is necessary that athletes run the easy portions easy.
    ●  When running the AT portion at the end of the run, the athletes' heart rates may exceed their normal AT heart rates (85 to 90 percent maximum heart rate) due to the cardiac drift associated with longer runs, especially on hot and humid days. However, athletes should not slow down their AT pace in an attempt to bring the higher heart rate down. Rather, they should focus on maintaining their correct AT paces.
 

What Makes Some People Faster Or Stronger?

Ever notice that some of your clients can do cardiovascular exercise for long periods of time but tire quickly when lifting weights? Or that others can lift heavy weights but run only 5 minutes on the treadmill? The reason why some clients can run faster or longer or get bigger muscles more easily than others lies in their muscles. The specific types of fibers that make up individual muscles greatly influence the way your clients adapt to their training programs. Humans have different types of muscle fibers (as well as gradations between them). The proportions from person to person are genetically determined, although the exact ratios may be amenable to change with specific training.

Slow-twitch (type I) fibers are recruited for aerobic activities and therefore have many characteristics needed for endurance, such as perfusion with a large network of capillaries to supply oxygen; lots of myoglobin to transport oxygen; and lots of mitochondria--the aerobic factories that contain enzymes responsible for aerobic metabolism. True to their name, slow-twitch fibers contract slowly but are very resistant to fatigue.
Fast-twitch (type II) fibers are recruited for anaerobic activities and therefore have many characteristics needed for strength, speed and power, such as large stores of creatine phosphate and glycogen and an abundance of enzymes involved in the anaerobic metabolic pathway of glycolysis. They contract quickly but fatigue easily. Fast-twitch fibers come in two forms: fast-twitch A (type IIa) and fast-twitch B (type IIb). Fast-twitch A fibers, which represent a transition between the two extremes of slow-twitch and fast-twitch B fibers, have both endurance and power characteristics. They are recruited for prolonged anaerobic activities that require relatively high forces, such as running a long, controlled sprint and carrying heavy objects. They are more fatigue-resistant than the fast-twitch B fibers, which are recruited only for short, intense activities, such as jumping, sprinting at full speed and lifting very heavy weights.
It is well known that aerobic athletes have a greater proportion of slow-twitch fibers, while anaerobic athletes have more fast-twitch fibers (Ricoy et al. 1998). The greater proportion of fast-twitch fibers in anaerobic athletes enables them to produce greater muscle force and power than their slow-twitch-fibered counterparts (Fitts & Widrick 1996). Fast-twitch fibers are the main contributors to force production during maximal ballistic movements, such as sprinting and jumping.

How This Affects Your Clients

Fiber type proportions will play a major role in the amount of weight your clients can lift, the number of repetitions they can complete per set, and the desired outcome (e.g., increased muscular strength or endurance). For example, a client with a greater proportion of fast-twitch fibers won’t be able to complete as many repetitions at a given percentage of his or her one-repetition maximum (1-RM) as will a client with a greater proportion of slow-twitch fibers--and therefore will not attain as high a level of muscular endurance as will the slow-twitch-fibered client.

Similarly, a client with a greater proportion of slow-twitch fibers won’t be able to lift as heavy a weight or run as fast as will a client with a greater proportion of fast-twitch fibers--and therefore won’t be as strong or powerful as will the fast-twitch-fibered client.

Tailoring Training to Dominant Fiber Type in Clients’ Programs. To focus on a specific goal, your clients’ training should reflect their physiology. For example, if a client has more slow-twitch fibers, he or she is best suited for endurance activities, and the program should focus on aerobic exercise or muscular endurance training, using more reps of a lighter weight. If a client has more fast-twitch fibers, he or she is best suited for anaerobic exercise and weight training for muscular strength, using fewer repetitions of a heavier weight.

However, if a client has more slow-twitch fibers but wants to get stronger and faster, you should try to increase the intensity of the weight training workouts and the speed of the cardio workouts as training progresses. Conversely, if a client has more fast-twitch fibers but wants to increase endurance, you should try to increase the duration of the cardio workouts and the number of repetitions in the resistance training program as training progresses.

Interval Training Advantages

by Jason Karp, PhD

One of the main reasons for all of the attention being given to interval training in the fitness industry is that it can improve fitness quickly, which is great news for busy people who don’t want to spend 2 hours in the gym.

Designing Interval Workouts

Interval training manipulates four variables: time (or distance), intensity, time of each recovery period and number of repetitions. With so many possible combinations of these four elements, the potential for variety is nearly unlimited. Possibly the greatest use of interval training lies in its ability to target individual energy systems and physiological variables, improving specific aspects of clients’ fitness levels.
Aerobic (Cardiovascular) Intervals
One of the best methods for improving the heart’s ability to pump blood and oxygen to the active muscles is interval training using work periods lasting 3–5 minutes and recovery periods equal to or slightly shorter than the work periods (see the sidebar “Sample Interval Workouts”). The cardiovascular adaptations associated with interval training increase clients’ VO2max, raising their aerobic ceiling. Since VO2max is achieved when maximum stroke volume and heart rate are reached, each work period should be performed at an intensity that elicits maximum heart rate.

Anaerobic Capacity Intervals
Anaerobic capacity refers to the ability to regenerate energy (ATP) through glycolysis. Work periods lasting 30 seconds to 2 minutes target improvements in anaerobic capacity by using anaerobic glycolysis as the predominant energy system. These short, intense work periods with recovery intervals two to four times as long as the work periods increase muscle glycolytic enzyme activity. As a result, glycolysis can regenerate ATP more quickly for muscle contraction and can improve the ability to buffer the muscle acidosis that occurs when there is a large dependence on oxygen-independent (anaerobic) metabolism.

Anaerobic Power Intervals
Anaerobic power refers to the ability to regenerate ATP through the phosphagen system. Work periods lasting 5–15 seconds target improvements in anaerobic power by using the phosphagen system as the predominant energy system. These very short, fast sprints with 3- to 5-minute recovery intervals that allow for complete replenishment of CP in the muscles increase fast-twitch motor unit activation and the activity of creatine kinase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down creatine phosphate.

Sample Interval Workouts

Incorporating interval training into your clients’ programs will dramatically improve their fitness. Ensure that clients warm up before each workout and cool down afterward.

Aerobic (Cardiovascular) Intervals

5 x 3 minutes @ VO2max intensity (95%–100% HRmax) with 2½–3 minutes of active recovery
3 x 4 minutes @ VO2max intensity (95%–100% HRmax) with 3½–4 minutes of active recovery
3, 4, 5, 4, 3 minutes @ VO2max intensity (95%–100% HRmax) with 2½–3 minutes of active recovery
Anaerobic Capacity (Glycolytic) Intervals

4–8 x 30 seconds at 95% all-out with 2 minutes of active recovery
4–8 x 60 seconds at 90% all-out with 3 minutes of active recovery
2–3 sets of 30, 60, 90 seconds at 90%–95% all-out with 2–3 minutes of active recovery, 5 minutes of recovery between sets
Anaerobic Power (Phosphagen System) Intervals

2 sets of 8 x 5 seconds all-out with 3 minutes of passive rest, 5 minutes of rest between sets
5 x 10 seconds all-out with 3–4 minutes of passive rest
2–3 sets of 15, 10, 5 seconds all-out with 3 minutes of passive rest, 10 minutes of rest between sets

Anaerobic Capacity Training

 In addition to the large aerobic contribution to cross country races, there is also a significant involvement of anaerobic metabolism, since the races are run at a speed faster than the acidosis threshold for most runners. When running faster than the heart and blood flow can provide oxygen to the muscles, some of the energy for muscle contraction is regenerated through anaerobic, or what I call "oxygen-independent," means. When this happens, a number of problems begin to arise inside runners' muscles. Primary among them is that the muscles lose their ability to contract effectively because of an increase in hydrogen ions, which causes the muscle pH to decrease, a condition called acidosis. Acidosis has a number of nasty side effects: it inhibits the enzyme that breaks down the energy molecule (ATP) inside muscles, which decreases muscle contractile force; it inhibits the release of calcium (the trigger for muscle contraction) from its storage site in muscles; and it inhibits the production of ATP from the metabolic pathway glycolysis by inhibiting glycolysis' most important enzyme.
    In addition to hydrogen ion accumulation, other metabolites accumulate when running fast, including potassium ions and the two constituents of ATP-ADP and inorganic phosphate (P), each of which causes a specific problem inside muscles, from inhibition of specific enzymes involved in muscle contraction to interference with muscles' electrical charges, ultimately leading to a decrease in muscle force production and running speed.
    Given the many fatigue-inducing factors associated with oxygen-independent metabolism, it's important for runners to develop their anaerobic capacity once they have developed themselves as aerobically as possible. The purposes of anaerobic capacity training are to cause a high degree of muscle acidosis so that athletes enhance their buffering capacity, to increase the number of enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in anaerobic glycolysis (the energy system that breaks down blood glucose and muscle and liver glycogen to resynthesize ATP) so that glycolysis can regenerate ATP more quickly for muscle contraction, and to increase running speed by recruiting fast-twitch muscle fibers.

Workout #26: 400-Meter Repeats
Objective: To increase anaerobic capacity.

Description: Athletes run 6 to 8 x 400 meters at mile race pace with a 1:1 work-to-rest ratio. For example, a runner who can run one mile in 5:00 should run each 400-meter repeat in 75 seconds with 75 seconds jog recovery.

Coaching Point: While any segment of a cross country course can be used for this workout, having athletes run fast over the last 400 meters of the course will provide them with a "memory," which will help them pick up the pace when they get to that point in their races. Conversely, don't have athletes do this workout over the first 400 meters of the course to prevent them from starting races too fast.

Workout #27: 600-Meter Repeats
Objective: To increase anaerobic capacity by working at the upper end of the work period duration.

Description: Athletes run 4 to 5 x 600 meters at mile race pace with a 1:1 work-to-rest ratio. For example, a runner who can run one mile in 5:30 should run each 600-meter repeat in 2:03 with 2:00 jog recovery.

Coaching Point: This workout is demanding. Try to get athletes to think of this workout as 400-meter repeats, with a 200 tacked on at the end.

Workout #28: 300-Meter Repeats
Objective: To increase anaerobic capacity by increasing the intensity that causes a high degree of acidosis.

Description: Athletes run two sets of 4 x 300 meters at 800-meter race pace with a 1:2 work-to-rest ratio. For example, a runner who can run 800 meters in 2:20 should run each 300-meter repeat in 52 to 53 seconds with 1 :45 jog recovery and 5 minutes recovery between sets.

Coaching Point: The pace for these workouts is based on what the athlete can do on a cross country course, which is considerably slower than on the track, so you'll need to make an adjustment in pace. Don't use the athlete's mile or 800-meter time from the track and expect him to run that pace on a cross country course for these workouts.

Workout #29: Anaerobic Capacity Ladder
Objective: To increase anaerobic capacity while adding variety to the workout.

Description: Athletes run two to four sets of 300, 400, and 600 meters at their mile race pace, with a 1:1.5 work-to-rest ratio. For example, a runner who can run one mile in 5:30 should run 61 seconds, 82 seconds, and 2:03 for the 300, 400, and 600 meters, respectively, with 1 :30 to 3:00 jog recovery (with the upper end of the recovery range following longer work periods) and 3:00 to 5:00 recovery between sets.

Coaching Point: Since this workout gets progressively harder within each set, make sure athletes don't run too fast for the 300 and 400. The pace should be the same for each repetition.

Workout #30: Anaerobic Capacity Pyramid
Objective: To increase anaerobic capacity while adding variety to the workout.

Description: Athletes run one to two sets of 300, 400, 600, 800, 600, 400, and 300 meters at their mile race pace, with a 1:1.5 work-to-rest ratio. For example, a runner who can run one mile in 5:10 should run 58 seconds, 77 seconds, 1:56, and 2:35 for the 300, 400, 600, and 800 meters, respectively, with 1 :30 to 3:45 jog recovery (with the upper end of the recovery range following longer work periods) and 5:00 recovery between sets.

Coaching Point: In an effort to equate the stress of workouts between runners of different abilities, use this hierarchy of strategies:
    ●    Decrease the length of each work period for slower runners (or increase the length of each work period for faster runners) to make the duration of each work period the same between runners.
    ●    Decrease the number of repetitions for slower runners (or increase the number of repetitions for faster runners) to make the total time spent running at anaerobic capacity pace the same.
    ●    Increase the duration of the recovery period for slower runners (or decrease the duration of the recovery period for faster runners) to make the work-to-rest ratio the same.

Workout #31: VO2max/Anaerobic Capacity Mix
Objective: To combine VO2max-paced running with anaerobic capacity work, to practice running fast off of already hard running, and to help develop a kick.

Description: Athletes run 3 to 4 x 800 to 1,000 meters at VO2max pace + 4 to 6 x 400 meters at mile race pace with a 1:1 work-to-rest ratio during the VO2max portion of the workout and a 1:2 work-to-rest ratio during the anaerobic capacity portion of the workout. For example, a runner who can run 5K in 17:00 should run 3 to 4 x 1,000 meters in 3:16 to 3:19 (5:14 to 5:19 pace) with 3:15 jog recovery + 4 to 6 x 400 meters in 73 to 74 seconds (4:54 pace) with 2:25 jog recovery.

Coaching Point: This workout is set up by the VO2max-pace segment, so make sure athletes don't run the VO2max-pace segment too fast.

How the Training Works

    Speed, agility, and quickness training has become a popular way to train athletes. With the continually increasing need to promote athletic ability, this type of training has proven to enhance the practical field abilities of participants in a wide variety of sports. It is practiced in addition to conventional resistance training in the gym and serves to assist in the transfer of the strength gained there to performance in the arena of play. Nearly every sport requires fast movements of either the arms or legs, and speed, agility, and quickness training can improve skill in precisely these
areas. Hence, all athletes can benefit when speed, agility, and quickness training is integrated into their training program.
    Although this type of training has been around for a number of years, many athletes have not practiced it. This is due primarily to a lack of education regarding both its specific benefits and how to integrate it into a complete training program. In particular, speed, agility, and quickness training is intended to increase the ability to exert maximal force during high-speed movements. It manipulates and capitalizes on the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) while bridging the gap between traditional resistance training and functional-specific movements. Some benefits of speed,
agility, and quickness training include increased muscular power in all multiplanar movements, brain-signal efficiency, kinesthetic spatial awareness, motor skills, and reaction time. The acquisition of greater balance and reaction time will serve to allow the athlete to maintain proper body position during skill execution and react more proficiently to any change in the playing environment. Quick movements are useless if the athlete trips over his or her own feet.
    Many athletes and coaches also do not realize that speed, agility, and quickness training can cover the complete spectrum of training intensity-from low to high. Each athlete will come into a training program at a different level, so the level of intensity must coincide with the athlete's abilities. For example, at the lower-intensity end of the spectrum, the assorted biomotor skills illustrated throughout this book can be used to teach movement, warm-up, or the basics of conditioning. No significant preparation is needed to participate at this level of speed, agility, and quickness
training. Higher-intensity drills require a significant level of preparation. A simple approach to safe participation and increased effectiveness is to start a concurrent strength-training program when beginning speed, agility, and quickness training.
    Let's review how speed, agility, and quickness training works and how it can be implemented within workouts for complete conditioning.

Understanding the Muscles at Work
    Understanding the basic physiology of muscular function is invaluable to understanding why this particular type of training is so effective. Within the body, each skeletal muscle is made up of connective tissue, muscle tissue, nerves, and blood vessels and is controlled by signals sent from the brain. These components work together in a coordinated fashion to cause bones and
therefore limbs to move in desired patterns. Muscle tissue is connected to a tendon, which is a noncontractile length of tissue that connects the muscle to a bone. Thus, tension developed within the muscle transfers to an adjoining tendon and then to a bone.
    On an even more intimate level, within each muscle fiber there are hundreds or even thousands of thin longitudinal fibers. These fibers contain two opposing contractile and fingerlike proteins called actin and myosin that form attachments called cross-bridges and pull against one another to cause motion. Through a series of chemical reactions controlled via brain signals, these proteins work to repeatedly pull and release. This causes muscular work, or a contraction, to occur.
    The SSC is at the heart of speed, agility, and quickness training. It works like a rubber band that is stretched and then snaps back together and involves a combination of eccentric (muscle-lengthening) and concentric (muscle-shortening) actions. An eccentric muscle action is performed when an athlete lowers a weight, such as during the downward movement in a biceps curl or a squat exercise. A concentric muscle action occurs during the upward, or opposite, movement in the above exercises. When an eccentric action precedes a concentric action, the resulting
force output of the concentric action is increased. This is the essence both of the SSC and speed, agility, and quickness training. Examples of SSC in sports occur with the swing of a baseball bat or a golf club, during which an individual precedes the intended motion with a wind-up or prestretch. Without this eccentric action, or if there is a pause between this action and the follow-through, the increased force output that is supposed to occur during the concentric phase of the exercise will not occur. The SSC also takes place during everyday activities, such as walking and
running, yet is greatly intensified during speed, agility, and quickness training.
    Advantages derived from the SSC can be seen in both large and small ways at all levels of sporting competition. One example is with the vertical jump. When the jumper precedes his or her jump by bending at the knees and hips and then explodes upward, the resultant jump height will be greater than performing the same movement by stopping at the bottom of the knee bend for a few seconds before the explosion portion of the jump. Another example can be seen in the baseball pitch. If the pitcher does not complete a wind-up, he or she is unable to generate
as much force as would be possible by performing a prestretch motion.
    SSC activities can be done for the upper body as well as for the lower body and can be implemented with external devices, such as free weights, rubber tubing, and medicine balls. Devices such as these assist the athlete in performing both the concentric and eccentric portions of the exercise insofar as they need either to be accelerated or decelerated. However, speed, agility, and quickness training may be performed without assistive devices by simply using one's own body mass as the weight or resistance.

Integrating Speed, Agility, and Quickness Training
    It is very important to remember that speed, agility, and quickness training is designed to supplement traditional resistance training. In other words, it should be conducted in addition to and not instead of lifting weights. Speed, agility, and quickness training at higher intensities should begin after a solid foundation of general conditioning has been established. This could mean six months to a year of foundational training for a beginner. The main point is to have enough of a strength base to adequately complete each speed, agility, and quickness exercise without undue strain. In addition, high-intensity speed, agility, and quickness training should normally be undertaken during the month or two just prior to the season and should include no more than 2 days per week and 30 to 45 minutes per session of total activity.
    When writing an exercise program for any athlete, you need to take many parameters into consideration. First, consider years of training, level of fitness, and how often the athlete will be performing speed, agility, and quickness training. In addition to these considerations, three important training variables need to be discussed. They are frequency, intensity, and volume.

Frequency, Intensity, and Volume
    Training frequency refers to the number of training sessions completed in a given amount of time, usually per week. Intensity applies to the quality of work performed during muscular activity and is measured in terms of power output (that is, work performed per unit of time). Training intensity may also be defined as how easy or difficult a particular activity is. Finally, volume describes the quantity or the total number of sets and repetitions completed in a training session. These three factors, combined with the number of years an athlete has trained and his or her fitness
level, all go into making up the training plan for the athlete.
    We can divide athletes into three major categories: novice, experienced, and advanced. The novice athlete is just beginning to exercise for sport. He or she might be an adolescent athlete or even an adult who chooses to take up sport later in life. The novice athlete's potential for improvement is great. The experienced athlete has been training for one to five years and is involved in a regular program of exercise and sport. Although competing at a higher level, he or she still has great opportunity for improvement. The advanced athlete competes at the national or international level at which events are decided by inches or hundredths of a second. These athletes are near their genetic limits; therefore their potential for improvement is small and the details of their program must be precise. Training age (number of years training for a sport) is more meaningful than chronological age in categorizing the athlete.
    For the novice athlete planning an integrated program, begin by adding one to two basic speed, agility, and quickness training exercises into the current training schedule. In particular, it is important that athletes begin with the basic techniques of each exercise before advancing to their more technical aspects. Furthermore, learning the proper mechanics of more basic exercises will allow the athlete to progress to advanced exercises in a timelier manner. As the novice athlete becomes more advanced, his or her frequency of training also will increase: from two to three
times per week. Remember that as the athlete progresses, there still must be rest days to allow for the muscles to recover. Coaches may employ different programs that allow for 2 or 3 days off per week. As the athlete gets closer to competition, however, that number is likely to decrease.
    The athlete should always begin each exercise at a low to moderate intensity and progress slowly while learning new movements, decreasing the total number of repetitions as intensity level is increased. Progression from low to super-high intensity may depend on which part of the training year the athlete is in. The intensity level is generally lower at some times during the year to make sure that the athlete is able to perform the prescribed exercise correctly while also avoiding injury. Low intensity may consist of performing the exercises at 40 to 50 percent of maximal exertion. Moderate intensity would constitute an increase to between 50 and 80 percent, and high intensity to between 80 and 100 percent, of maximal exertion.
    Intensity and volume directly influence one another in that as intensity increases volume must decrease. Early in the program volume is high while intensity is low. As the athlete nears competition, volume is decreased as intensity increases. Measuring training volume (number of sets x number of repetitions) is vital for assessing training progression. How great a volume of training is performed within a given training session is based on the athlete's level of fitness. The proper interaction of the number of sets and repetitions with variation in training intensity may also help augment training adaptations. These adaptations become evident through repeated training sessions. Upon progressing to a desired fitness level, always allow the athlete to adequately recover.

Periodization
    One way to design a program that maximizes the components of frequency, intensity, and volume is through periodization. Periodization involves the gradual cyclical alteration of frequency, intensity, and volume of training throughout the year to achieve peak levels of fitness for the most important competitions. It organizes the annual training program into specific phases during which the athlete trains in varying ways to meet objectives particular to each phase. Thus, all the phases of a periodized program together constitute a macrocycle. On its own, in turn, each
phase constitutes a mesocycle, which may stretch over several weeks or months, depending on the goals set by the athlete and coach. The mesocycle may be further separated into even smaller sections called microcycles, which are generally periods of training that last around one week, depending on the type of event for which the athlete is preparing.

Safety Considerations and Injury Prevention
    An appropriate warm-up session should precede every exercise session. Warm-up routines should begin with a low-intensity whole-body activity, such as jogging. This will increase heart rate and blood flow to the muscles and tendons, thereby preparing the athlete for the higher-intensity workout to come. This general warmup should be followed by a specific warm-up that consists of performing some of the session's exercises at a low intensity.
    Injury prevention is a major part of any training program. It is imperative that every athlete advance in a progressive and systematic manner when embarking on such a program, including speed, agility, and quickness training. A properly conducted strength-training program that emphasizes knee, hip, back, and ankle strength will reduce the possibility of injury when speed, agility, and quickness training is first introduced. Training should progress from simple to complex movements, from low to high intensity, and from general to sport-specific motor patterns. Moreover, factors such as frequency, intensity, volume, body structure, sport specificity, training age, and phase of periodization should always be considered when designing speed, agility, and quickness training.
    Here are a few more recommendations for injury prevention: Follow the proper progression of exercises, and wear proper clothing and shoes.
    Remember, proper safety procedures must be observed while learning and mastering the speed, agility, and quickness activities included in this book. Make certain all equipment is in correct working order before use. If exercising outdoors, make sure the area is free of any hazardous objects, such as rocks or trees. Be sure to understand each new exercise completely prior to attempting it for the first time.
    It is also important to make mention of a common occurrence experienced by athletes. When one first attempts a new exercise, there is likely to be muscle soreness. This soreness, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), usually peaks between 24 and 72 hours after the exercise bout. The eccentric portion of the exercise (described earlier) is the primary cause of DOMS, and the prevailing explanation for DOMS is micromuscle tears. This has been observed in studies utilizing an electron microscope to reveal tissue damage in the fibers. The only way to reduce
the development of DOMS is to adapt to the exercise stress. This requires repeating exercise bouts over several weeks with sufficient rest between sessions. Since all speed, agility, and quickness training involves eccentric exercise utilizing the SSC, it is recommended that novice athletes perform no more than two exercise sessions per week separated by 2 or 3 days. Experienced and advanced athletes may perform up to 3 days per week.
    In summary, speed, agility, and quickness training is high-intensity work that requires a foundation of strength before implementation. It may result in mild muscle soreness until the athlete adapts to prescribed exercises. Therefore, these exercises should be introduced slowly before progressing to higher intensity and greater complexity. In the coming chapters, we will describe the drills that make up speed, agility, and quickness training and show how to integrate them into a complete training plan. But first we will discuss methods for assessing athletes' fitness levels and skills.

Speed Training

    Hours spent developing speed through training ironically turn into a payoff that lasts only for a few seconds, even for world-class athletes. While most sports other than track sprinting do not offer the platform to showcase maximum running speed, sprint training lies at the foundation of numerous athletic activities.
    Just think of how many critical game situations in various sports are won or lost by the ability to shift, when needed, into a higher gear. The bottom line is that a successful speed-training regimen can playa major role in making athletes more successful in many sports. The ability, for example, to speed up in order to chase down a free ball in a basketball game may make the difference between winning and losing. Unfortunately, many people subscribe to the philosophy that speed is something one is born with, not something that can be improved through training. So they spend little time on speed training. However, both experience and research have shown that a good speed development program can be incorporated into almost any workout regimen and can produce noticeable increases in speed.
    To get maximum results from speed training, there are numerous factors to consider above and beyond pure genetic potential. These include stride length, stride frequency, strength, power, functional flexibility, acceleration, and proper technique. This chapter includes guidelines for speed development, drills for maximum speed attainment, and other matters of significance that contribute to improving speed.

Acceleration
    For most sports, acceleration---the rate of change in velocity---is the most important component of speed development. In other words, being able to accelerate quickly means that the athlete can go from a stationary or near-stationary state to his or her maximum speed in a very short time. All athletes accelerate by increasing both stride length and stride frequency.
    One way to increase stride length and stride frequency is to increase overall functional strength throughout the entire body. Improved strength levels will allow athletes to produce greater amounts of force while at the same time decreasing the time spent in contact with the ground. Training the body to use the attained strength gains in a powerful fashion is the key to improving acceleration. In a nutshell, the most powerful athletes spend less time in contact with the ground, have longer strides, and can take strides more rapidly than their less powerful counterparts.
    The highest rates of acceleration are achieved in the first 8 to 10 strides taken by an athlete. Close to 75 percent of maximum running velocity is established within the first 10 yards (9 meters). Maximum running speed is reached within 4 to 5 seconds for most athletes.
    To ensure a proper transition to top speed, quick running steps should gradually increase in length until full stride length is achieved. Explosive starting actions require the application of forces through the hip, knee, and ankle joints; and the execution of quick running steps requires tremendous elastic strength in the hip and knee musculature. Good mobility in the hip joint will assist athletes with leg separation during the "knee-lift" phase. Elastic strength prevents the leg from collapsing in the knee and hip regions during impact with the ground and also reduces
the time that the foot is in contact with the ground.

Stride Frequency and Stride Length
    The two main factors in running speed, as you might have guessed by now, are stride length and stride frequency. Increasing one or both will result in increased speed. However, they are interrelated in such a way that increasing one often results in the reduction of the other. For example, in an effort to increase stride length, an athlete may reach too far forward with the lower leg, resulting in overstriding. This decreases stride frequency, which results in a lower running speed. Good coaching is important to ensure that changes in stride length and frequency actually result
in positive gains.
    Stride frequency is measured by the number of strides taken in a given amount of time or over a given distance. By using good sprinting technique, stride frequency can be increased without sacrificing stride length. Increasing stride frequency is important because the athlete can only produce locomotive energy when his or her feet are in contact with the ground. The more often the feet touch the ground, the faster the potential running speed. This idea must be balanced with the fact that large amounts of force and power are necessary during the limited ground contact time
in each stride. Modern sprint technique effectively maximizes this combination.
    Sprint-assisted training is one technique that can be used to improve stride frequency. Assisted sprinting will allow athletes to develop the feel of running at a faster velocity than they would be capable of running normally. This added dimension of supramaximal speed enables athletes to improve their running mechanics at a faster rate than would be possible unassisted. By not having to run all-out but still being able to achieve a speed that is at or slightly above their unassisted best, athletes can learn to relax more easily at high speed. Some of the traditional assisted methods of training include downhill running and towing (see drills). To avoid injury, athletes should be well versed in the mechanics of proper sprinting form and adequately warmed up before attempting this type of training.
    While stride frequency is calculated in terms of the number of steps taken per minute, stride length is the distance covered---measured from the center of mass---in one stride during running. Research has shown that optimal stride length at maximum speed is normally 2.3 to 2.5 times the athlete's leg length. A common mistake made by many young athletes is to try to take strides that are too long in an effort to attain or maintain top speed. When this happens, they have a tendency to overstride and ultimately slow themselves down because of decreased efficiency
in force production. Most athletes develop their optimal stride length as proper technique and strength/power improve.
    Stride length can be enhanced by improving sprint mechanics (see the following section on proper technique) and the athlete's power, absolute strength, and elastic strength through numerous forms of training. These include strength training; the use of weighted pants, weighted vests, running chutes, and harnesses; and uphill running (see drills). Coaches must be careful not to get too carried away with these different "resisted methods" of training. Overuse of these methods can adversely affect running technique, thereby undermining the overall process of speed development. Many books are available that discuss weight training and plyometrics in greater detail.

Proper Technique
    Sprint mechanics is another term for sprint form or sprint technique. Proper mechanics allow the athlete to maximize the forces that the muscles are generating. This greatly improves the chances that an athlete will achieve the highest speed expected of him or her, given his or her genetic potential and training. Good technique also increases neuromuscular efficiency. This, in turn, allows for smooth and coordinated movements that also contribute to faster running speeds.
    There are three main elements to concentrate on with regard to proper sprinting mechanics: posture, arm action, and leg action. Posture refers to the alignment of the body. An athlete's posture changes depending on which phase of the sprinting action he or she is in at a particular time. During acceleration, there is more of a pronounced lean (around 45 degrees from the horizontal plane). This aids in overcoming inertia. As the athlete approaches his or her maximum running speed, posture should become more erect (around 80 degrees). Regardless of the phase of sprinting, one should be able to draw a straight line from the ankle of the supporting leg through the knee, hip, torso, and head when the athlete's leg is fully extended just before the foot loses contact with the ground.
    Arm action refers to the range of motion and velocity of the athlete's arms. The movement of the arms counteracts the rotational forces generated by the legs. Because these leg forces are substantial, vigorous and coordinated arm movements are necessary to keep the body in proper alignment. This is important in all phases of sprinting, but it is crucial in the initial acceleration phase.
    Leg action refers to the relationship of the hips and legs relative to the torso and the ground. Making explosive starts and achieving maximum speed require extending the hip, knee, and ankle in a coordinated fashion to produce the greatest force possible against the ground. Also, in order to keep the stride frequency high and the stride length optimal, proper recovery mechanics-that is, what the leg does while it is not on the ground-are important. When coaching speed mechanics, keep these other important factors in mind:

    1. Head position: The head should be in line with the torso and the torso in line with the legs (at full extension) at all times. Do not allow the head to sway or jerk in any direction. Try to maintain a relaxed neutral position with the jaw relaxed and loose.

    2. Body lean: Running can be seen as a controlled fall. As already mentioned, one should be able to draw a straight line through the body at full leg extension during each stride. The body should have a pronounced forward lean during initial acceleration, while at maximum speed it should be erect and tall. Concentrate on complete extension of the hip and knee joints as the foot pushes the body forward.

    3. Leg action: The foot should remain in a dorsiflexed (toes up) position throughout the running cycle, except when the foot strikes the ground. At this point, the weight should be on the ball of the foot (never on the heel), directly under the athlete. As the foot leaves the ground, it follows a path straight up toward the buttocks. Simultaneously, the knee rises up and the thigh is almost parallel to the ground. The foot then drops down below the knee. At this point, the knee is at an angle of approximately 90 degrees. The leg aggressively straightens down and underneath
the body to the ground contact point. This process is repeated over and over with each leg. The greater the running speed, the higher the heel should kick up. Failure to achieve a high rear-heel kick will reduce stride frequency, and the athlete should avoid placing the foot in front of the body when making contact with the ground. He or she should practice running as lightly and quietly as possible with correct foot-to-ground contact.

    4. Arm action: Aggressive arm action is a must. Each arm should move as a whole, with the elbow bent at about 90 degrees. The hands remain relaxed, coming up to about nose level in the front of the body and passing the buttocks in the back. Arm action must always be directly forward and backward, never side to side. Arm swing should originate from the shoulder and not involve excessive flexion and extension of the elbows. The hands may be kept open or slightly closed, but always relaxed. The athlete should keep the thumb side of the hand pointed forward and up at all times during the movement; do not allow the wrist to move.

    As top speed is approached,
    1. the head is held high,
    2. the torso becomes more upright,
    3. the shoulders and head are relaxed,
    4. the driving leg is fully extended to the ground, and
    5. the heel of the recovery foot comes close to the gluteus.

    Practicing the drills listed at the end of this chapter will improve proper technique, thus increasing running speed.

Developing Your Speed Potential
    While there is no magic formula for developing or increasing maximum running speed, there are some specific guidelines that anyone can follow when training for speed improvement. Simply put, running brief and intense sprints with plenty of rest between repetitions is critical. Sound programs emphasize technique, starts, acceleration, speed endurance, and relaxation. Use these guidelines:
    1. All speed workouts must be performed when the body is fully recovered from previous workouts. A tired, sore, or overtrained athlete cannot improve his or her speed capabilities. Therefore, speed training is most effective at the beginning of a workout session.
    2. Proper sprinting technique must be taught to and mastered by athletes through the execution of many perfect drill repetitions over a long period of time. Speed does not come after one week of drills. It is derived over many months of hard work and hundreds of drill executions.
    3. All sets and repetitions within a speed workout must be accompanied by adequate rest. The athlete's heart rate and respiration should return to almost normal levels from the previous drill. Any sprint drill that lasts 6 to 8 seconds, at a maximum or near-maximum effort, will have implications on the short-term energy system (ATP-CP) and the central nervous system. A one to four
work-to-rest ratio is recommended as a good estimate.
    4. Speed workouts should vary between light, medium, and heavy days. For example, back-to-back hard days would not be beneficial to speed enhancement. This would inhibit adequate recovery.
    5. Track the total distance run by the athlete during each maximum speed workout.
    6. To fully achieve maximum speed, the athlete must learn to run in a relaxed manner while at the same time producing maximum effort. This is much easier said than done, of course, especially with junior and senior high .school athletes. Overexertion will produce extraneous body movements, which will detract from the power required to go fast.
    7. Speed endurance can be accomplished by running longer intervals-165 to 440 yards (151 to 402 meters)-or by decreasing the rest between short intervals to between 20 and 65 yards (18 and 49 meters). The latter is a good choice for many sport-specific applications.
    8. All speed workouts should be preceded by a dynamic warm-up and flexibility routine, which will prepare the athlete for maximum efforts.

    It's important to pay close attention to the last guideline. A proper warm-up for sprint or acceleration training will prepare the athlete for the maximum efforts necessary for speed development. The purpose of the warm-up is to increase specific muscle and core body temperature. Good examples of an active warm-up routine include jogging (forward and backward), lunge walking, calisthenics, skipping, or any other aerobic activity. The general warm-up should typically be 5 to 10 minutes long with the goal being for the athlete to break a sweat. Generally, the warm-up should begin with slow, simple movements and move toward quicker, more complex movements.
    After mild perspiration has been achieved, dynamic flexibility movements should follow. Dynamic stretching increases range of motion in the major joints utilized in sprint training and helps to stimulate the nervous system. Examples of dynamic flexibility include but are not limited to arm circles, trunk twists, stepping knee hugs, high kicks, lunging walks with rotations, walking on tiptoes, walking on the heels, ankle rotations, and leg swings. Another benefit to dynamic flexibility exercises is the variety available to coaches and athletes. We suggest mixing up the order occasionally, but ensure that athletes have hit the shoulders, torso, hips, quads, hamstrings, calves, and ankles. Dynamic flexibility routines should be 10 to 15 minutes in duration.
    Recent research suggests that traditional static stretching impairs maximal force production and may even contribute to muscle injuries in dynamic activities that directly follow the stretching. Therefore, it is advisable to avoid these types of stretches until after all speed/power movements are completed-that is, at the end of the workout session during the cool-down.
    Although true maximum speed may seldom be achieved in most sports settings outside of track, the ingredients that help to improve the times of track sprinters will work just as effectively for athletes in almost every sport. Many coaches and athletes look for the quick fix or "magic pill" for increasing maximum sprinting speed. In actuality, the formula is quite simple: make the muscles stronger and more efficient via a sound strength-training regimen combined with improved sprint-technique training. Incorporating different speed modalities into an athlete's training regimen can break the monotony that sometimes sets in even while following a sound program, but be careful not to overuse them. Prioritizing and individualizing are critical in today's sports environment. Increased competition and focus on winning, coupled with less time to achieve the necessary level of fitness provides a daunting challenge to coaches and athletes alike. Devising a systematic, disciplined approach is a must. The drills in the following chapters should be used to maximize speed with this in mind.